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Original article
13 (
1
); 1901-1916
doi:
10.1016/j.arabjc.2018.02.007

Capparis decidua Edgew (Forssk.): A comprehensive review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and nutrapharmaceutical potential

, , , ,
a Department of Botany, University of Sargodha, Sargodha 40100, Pakistan
b Department of Chemistry, University of Sargodha, Sargodha 40100, Pakistan
c Department of Chemistry, GC University Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
d Chemistry Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia

⁎Corresponding authors. majaz172@yahoo.com (Muhammad A. Hussain)

Received: , Accepted: ,
© The Author(s) 2018
Disclaimer:
This article was originally published by Elsevier and was migrated to Scientific Scholar after the change of Publisher.

Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.

Abstract

Capparis decidua, a medicinal plant of family Capparaceae grows abundantly in wild arid regions of Asia, Africa and Saudi Arabia. The plant has found wide folk medicinal applications along with its nutritional value. C. decidua possessed many pharmacological attributes such as antidiabetic, anthelmintic, antibacterial, antifungal, analgesic, anti-nociceptive, antirheumatic, hypolipidemic, antiatherosclerotic, anti-tumor, antigiardial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and anticonvulsant activities. These marvellous bioactivities of the caper plant can be attributed to the presence of a wide range of phytochemicals including alkaloids (capparisinine, capparisine, stachydrine, isocodonocarpine), phenolics, flavonoids, sterols and fatty acids. This review focuses on detailed phytochemistry, folk medicinal uses and pharmacological attributes of this multipurpose plant. Moreover, we also covered the importance of plant as a source of functional food and nutrapharmaceuticals.

Keywords

Capparis decidua
Medicinal applications
Biofuels
Bioactivities
Phytochemistry
1

1 Introduction

Plants are considered as a treasure house of potential drugs (Yadav and Agarwala, 2011; Muhammad et al., 2016; Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001) and play vital role in the repression of dietary and pathogen related afflictions of ethnic people since ancient times (Shah et al., 2013; Shad et al., 2014; Ashraf et al., 2016). There has been a revival of interest worldwide in traditional/complementary and alternative medicines over the last few years (Hussain et al., 2012; Shi et al., 2010). In spite of lack of scientific knowledge about the efficacy of phytomedicines, their use has become more accepted as a complementary and alternative medicines because of the less cost and side effects (Nasir et al., 2015; Hossen et al., 2015; Muhammad et al., 2015). For the treatment of different ailments, phytomedicines are trusted by 80% population in the developing countries (WHO, 2009). Over the last few decades, there is a developing interest to investigate the potential bioactivity and nutritional relevance of several classes of phytochemicals such as carotenoids, flavonoids, glucosinolates, and phytoestrogens (Rates, 2001). Literature has revealed that plants have been used for their therapeutic values and their molecular structures have laid the foundation of many modern-day pharmaceuticals (Russell and Duthie, 2011).

Capparis decidua Edgew (Forssk.) (Syn: C. aphylla) a perennial woody plant of family Capparidaceae, is chiefly found in subtropical and tropical regions (Dhakad et al., 2016). It is commonly known with hundreds of vernacular names; few common are Kari, Delha, Caper, Kair, Karyal, Hanbag, Karil, Kabra, etc. The importance of this plant in traditional medicines is evident in all systems of medicines (Ayurveda, Tibb-e-Unani, Greco-Arab, Chinese, etc.) (Chopra et al., 2006; Gupta, 2010). Traditionally the plant is implied for the treatment of many diseases such as rheumatism, asthma, cough, lumbago, toothache, pyorrhoea, dysentery, liver infections, diarrhoea, febrifuge, cardiac troubles, constipation, ulcer, piles, renal disorders, and skin diseases (Singh and Singh, 2011; Haq et al., 2011; Mann et al., 2013). The plant acts as carminative, aphrodisiac, analgesic, alexipharmic, emmenagogue and tonic, potherb, purgative, and appetite enhancer (Singh and Singh, 2011; Singh et al., 2011). C. decidua is esteemed for its antibacterial (Keymanesh et al., 2009; Gull et al., 2015), antifungal (Keymanesh et al., 2009), antihemolytic (Vaishnav et al., 2015), antioxidant (Dangi and Mishra, 2011; Haq et al., 2011), antidiabetic (Haq et al., 2011), anthelmintic (Rathee et al., 2010a, 201b; Singh and Singh, 2011; Khan et al., 2013; Vaishnav et al., 2015; Raza et al., 2016), anesthetic (Mann et al., 2013), antirheumetic (Kamal et al., 2016), and anti-gout activities (Upadhyay, 2012a).

Various pharmacological activities such as anti-arthritis, anti-microbial (Sharma and Kumar, 2008), insecticidal (Frear, 1947; Upadhyay, 2012a, 2012b, 2013), termicidal (Upadhyay et al., 2010b, 2012), antiviral (Mohammed et al., 2012) antiplatelets (Mohammed et al., 2014), hypolipidimic (Chahlia, 2009; Singh and Singh, 2011), anti-aging (Jadoon et al., 2015), anti-atherosclerotic (Purohit and Vyas, 2006), anti-inflammatory (Vaishnav et al., 2105), analgesic (Singh and Singh, 2011), and nociceptive activities (Dev et al., 2015) are also attributed to various parts of C. decidua. Plant-based diets contain a plenty of secondary metabolites that positively affected human health and played role in suppression of ailments (Russell and Duthie, 2011).

Apart from its pharmacological importance, C. decidua is also valued as a rich source of basic mineral nutrients contributing towards nutraceutical value of the plant. A considerable content of calcium and potassium is present in the plant which is valued both for livestock feed and human food. Flowers and fruits of C. decidua are a potential source of important electrolytic minerals. A considerable amount of essential minerals, particularly, Fe and Zn is also present in the plant which advocates its potential use to muddle through the mineral deficiency in human diet (Gull et al., 2015).

Herein, we compiled this review to cover phytochemistry, folk medicinal uses and pharmacological attributes of C. decidua. The review will attract and help medicinal chemists, pharmacologists and phytochemists to know about bioactive potential and nutrapharmaceutical applications of this versatile plant.

2

2 Taxonomy and distribution

Capparis decidua Edgew (Forssk.) (Syn: C. aphylla Roth) (Nadkarni, 1954; Kirtikar and Basu, 1933), a member of family Capparaceae, is an important medicinal plant of dry and arid regions. It is native to deserts and arid regions of the Indian subcontinent, Africa, and Saudi Arabia. It is also growing abundantly in dry tropical Africa, Tibesti (West Chad), Sudan (except the extreme South), Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, Iran, India, Jordan, Pakistan, and Mascarene Islands (Abra and Ali, 2011). In sub-continent, it is cosmopolitan in dry places of Sindh, Baluchistan, Western Rajputana, Deccan, Central India, Punjab, Gujarat, and Tinnevelly (Chishty and Monika, 2016).

C. decidua is a bushy shrub with a height of 4–5 m. Occasionally, it occurs as small tree with dense tufts of apparently leafless, dark glossy green branches, minute (2–12 mm in length and 1–3 mm in width) caducuous leaves found only on young shoots and a pair of spines at each node of the twigs. The leaves are glabrous and narrow or modified into spikes reducing the loss of water due to transpiration in extremely drought conditions. The tap root system enables caper plant to uptake water from the ground at depth up to 4 m. The presence of secondary root system near ground surface helped the plant to absorb water even when rainfall is low (Singh and Singh, 2011). Flowers are pink with red veins and fruit is mucronate pink berry when fresh and becomes black when dry (Khan et al., 2013). The green bark of the plant turns to yellow or whitish grey as the stem matures (Kirtikar and Basu, 1933). Sprouting of new leaves takes place from January to November (Joseph and Jini, 2011; Singh and Singh, 2011; Warrier et al., 1996) while flowers sprout in March–April in Pakistan. Flowers are mostly born on old branches. New branches bear fewer flowers, which grow along the spine axis. The fruiting season is from March to April in some parts of the world such as Egypt and Morocco whereas in Pakistan, caper plant bears fruit in the months of May to July. Flowering takes place at its peak two weeks before the Monsoon season (Singh and Singh, 2011; Warrier et al., 1996).

C. decidua is widely distributed in abandoned dry lands exposed to intense radiations with an altitude range, mean annual rainfall and temperature of 300–1200 m, 100–750 mm and 18–48 °C, respectively (Pandey and Rokad, 1992; Chishty and Monika, 2016). It is extremely resistant to drought (Abra and Ali, 2011), salinity, (Qasim et al., 2011) and soil erosion (Ozcan, 2005), and tolerates some frost (Ghangro et al., 2015), resulting in a plant with excellent adaptations to arid conditions.

3

3 Phytochemistry

C. decidua has been found to contain a number of alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, and fatty acids (Rathee et al., 2010a, 201b; Soda, 2010). The root bark of C. decidua has been reported to contain two sitosterols (24-β-methylcholest-7-ene-22-one-3 β-ol and 24-β-methylcholest-9 (11)-ene-22-one-3α-ol), one diterpene alcohol (3-methyl-7-hydroxymethylene-10-(12, 16, 16-trimethylcyclohex-11-enyl)-dec-9-ene-5-one-8-ol), two aliphatic constituents (butyl-3-oxoeicosanoate and 25-oxooctosan-1, 20-diol) and one diterpenic ester (9-(11,15,15-trimethylcyclohex-11-ene-13-one-yl)-one-6-hydroxymethylene-7-one-yl, 4′-Methyl heptanoate) (Rathee et al., 2010a; Rai, 1987).

Spermidine and spermine polyamines are found to have an important role in the proliferation, growth, and development of mammalian cells. Moreover, these compounds also possessed antioxidant, anti-arteriosclerotic, and anti-allergenic properties (Fujisawa and Kadoma, 2005; Soda, 2010). These polyamines have also been observed to promote healthy hair growth which can be explained on the basis of their cell proliferative properties (de la Pena et al., 2014; Gugliucci and Menini, 2003; Ramot et al., 2010; Ramot, 2011). Isocodonocarpine (Ahmad et al., 1989; Rathee et al., 2010a), capparisinine (Ahmad et al., 1985, 1987a; Dahot, 1993) and capparidisine (Ahmad et al., 1992) are the important spermidine alkaloids isolated from root bark of C. decidua. Among other alkaloids, 14-N-acetyl isocodonocarpine, 15-N-acetyl capparisine, cadabicine (Ahmad et al., 1987b), stachydrine, (Gaind and Juneja, 1969), capparisine (Gaind and Juneja, 1970), and codonocarpine (Ahmad et al., 1992) have been isolated from root bark. The structures of some the alkaloids present in the C. decidua are shown in Fig. 1.

Structures of some selected alkaloids isolated from various parts of C. decidua.
Fig. 1 Structures of some selected alkaloids isolated from various parts of C. decidua.

Important oxygenated heterocyclic constituents present in root bark of C. decidua were characterized by spectral studies and identified as 7,11,15,19-tetramethyleicos-13-ene-17-ol-6,21-olide, 13-(15,19–19-trimethylcyclohex-14,17-diene-16-one-yl)-10-methyI-6-hydroxymethylenetridec-10-ene-7,8,12-triol-5-(20)-olide, 13-(15,19-trimetylcyclohex-14,17-diene-16-one-yl)-100-methyl-6-hydroxymethylene-tridec-6-ene-1,8,12-triol-5,(20)-olide, 14-(16,20,20-trimethylcyclohex-15,18-diene-17-one-yl)-tetradec-3-ene-13-ol-1(5),8(24)-diolide, 14-(16,20,20-trimethylcyclohex-15,18-diene-17-one-yl)-11-methylpentadec-1,22-dihydroxymethylene-7-ene-13-one-6,21-olide and 19-(21,25,25-trimethyl cyclohex-20) 30-diene-22-one-yl)-16-methyl-nonadec-8-ene-14-one-8-hydroxymethylene-18-ol-7,26-olide-28-oic acid, respectively (Gupta and Ali, 1997).

The roots of C. decidua contained crystalline, colourless and hygroscopic alkaloids such as capparine, cappariline and capparinine (Ahmad et al., 1992; Rathee et al., 2010a, 201b; Singh et al., 2011). The constituents of the aerial parts of C. decidua included one shikimate derivative, two acyclic terpenoids, four fatty acids, two sterols and two lupine terpenoids (Gupta and Ali, 1997). The two sesquiterpene lactones, germacr-3β-ol-7,9-dien-6,14-olide-15-oic acid and germacr-3β-ol-12-ene-6,14-olide-15-oic acid were also isolated from the methanolic extract of aerial parts (Mohammed et al., 2014). Glucocapparin and methyl isothiocyanate were isolated from methanolic seed extract (Rathee et al., 2010a, 201b). Isothiocyanates have been reported to exhibit cancer preventive activity (Tesoriere et al., 2007; Zhang, 2004). N-pentacosane, β-sitosterol and β-carotene have also been isolated from unsaponifiable fraction of seeds (Ahmad et al., 1987b, 1987a). The structures of fatty acid isolated from seeds and their composition (Abra and Ali, 2011) is shown in Fig. 2 and Table 1, respectively.

Fatty acid profile of C. decidua seeds.
Fig. 2 Fatty acid profile of C. decidua seeds.
Table 1 Fatty acid composition of seeds.
Sr. no. Fatty acids Percentage content (%)
1 Oleic acid 57.2
2 Palmitic acid 21.1
3 Linoleic acid 11.4
4 Stearic acid 7.7
5 Arachidic acid 2.0
6 Myristic acid 0.6

The hydrocarbon fraction of flowers contained nonacosane and triacontane. Ascorbic acid (1190 mg kg−1), phytic acid (680 mg kg−1), oxalic acid (1 mg kg−1), and phthalic acid have also been investigated in the flowers and fruit husk (Mishra et al., 2007; Rathee et al., 2010a, 201b). Two new saturated aliphatic ketones (C28 and C32), n-nonacosanol, β-sitosterol, β-D-glucoside of β-sitosterol, a new isomer of β-sitosterol, a new glycoside, pelargonidin-3-galactoside, glucocappasalin, glucocapparin, and two free sugars, D glucose and D-galactose are other phytochemicals present in flowers of plant (Rai, 1987). The structures of some important phytochemicals isolated from various parts of C. decidua are shown in Fig. 3.

Structures of some selected phytochemicals isolated from various parts of C. decidua.
Fig. 3 Structures of some selected phytochemicals isolated from various parts of C. decidua.

Stachydrine (2-carboxy-1,1-dimethyl pyrrolidine) was detected in the fruit pulp, fruit husk, and flowers (Ahmad et al., 1987b, 1987a). Caper fruits and fruit husk contained large amounts of carotene (210 mg kg−1) (Mishra et al., 2007). Among flavonoids, isorhamnetin was explored in the leaves of C. decidua. Leaves also consisted of phenolic constituents such as phydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid, salicylic acid, syringic acid, vanillic acid, gentisic acid, 2-hydroxy-6-methoxybenzoic acid, and sinapic acid (Daniel and Sabnis, 1977; Abra and Ali, 2011). The structures of selected acidic phytochemicals from C. decidua are given in Fig. 4.

Some selected acidic phytochemicals of the plant.
Fig. 4 Some selected acidic phytochemicals of the plant.

The aqueous, n-hexane and acetonic extracts of C. decidua leaves are reported to have phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and flavonols (Mann et al., 2013; Baghiani et al., 2012). Amounts of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and flavonols in various extracts of C. decidua leaves are shown in Table 2 whereas Table 3 is showing other phytochemicals isolated from various parts of C. decidua.

Table 2 Amounts of phenolic compounds, flavonoids and flavonols in leaves of C. decidua.
Extracts Phenolic compounds (µg mg−1) Flavonoids (µg mg−1) Flavonols (µg mg−1)
Aqueous 154 98.33 148.33
n-Hexane 357 812.33 868.33
Acetone 49.83 106.33 341
Table 3 Phytochemical isolated from various parts of C. decidua.
Plant part used Phytochemicals References
Root bark Sitosterols Rathee et al. (2010a) and Rai (1987)
Alkaloids Ahmad et al. (1989), Rathee et al. (2010a), Ahmad et al. (1985), Dahot (1993), Ahmad et al. (1992) and Gaind and Juneja (1969)
Heterocyclic compounds Gupta and Ali (1997)
Leaves Flavonoids and phenolic components Daniel and Sabnis (1977), Mann et al. (2013), Baghiani et al. (2012) and Abra and Ali (2011)
Roots Alkaloids Ahmad et al. (1992), Rathee et al. (2010a, 201b) and Singh et al. (2011)
Aerial parts Terpenoids Gupta and Ali (1997)
Sesquiterpene lactones Mohammed et al. (2014)
Seeds Glucocapparin and methyl isothiocyanate Rathee et al. (2010a, 201b)
N-pentacosane, β-sitosterol and β-carotene Ahmad et al. (1987b, 1987a)
Fatty acids Abra and Ali (2011)
Flowers Hydrocarbons Mishra et al. (2007) and Rathee et al. (2010)
Sterols and sugars Rai (1987)
Stachydrine Ahmad et al. (1987b, 1987a)
Fruit Stachydrine Ahmad et al. (1987b, 1987a)
Carotene Mishra et al. (2007)

4

4 Folk medicinal uses

Since the advent of mankind, medicinal plants have been used for the treatment of several ailments (Shah et al., 2013). Even today, plants are playing their role as an exclusive source of drugs (Hamburger and Hostettmann, 1991). Phytochemicals such as glucosinolates, phenolics, polyamine alkaloids, flavonoids, and vitamins are responsible for the folk medicinal uses and pharmacological properties of this multipurpose plant (Balick and Cox, 1996; Sharma and Kumar, 2008).

Among medicinal plants, C. decidua is teemed with bioactives possessing pharmaceutical and nutraceutical values. The plant has long been used in Unani (Chopra et al., 2006) and Ayurvedic (Gupta, 2010) systems of medicines. Indian ethnomedicinal literature proved utilization of Capparis species in medicines since ancient times. Almost all parts of Capparis plants are extensively used to cure a number of diseases since pre-historic times without any negative health effect (Iwu et al., 1999). The medicinal importance of C. decidua is also evident from a number of books (Verma et al., 2011; Dipti and Jaiswal, 2016). C. decidua exhibits analgesic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, and laxative properties.

Biliousness is cured using stem and leaves while fruits cured intermittent fever and rheumatism (Dalziel, 1948). Immature fruit of C. decidua, when pickled or cooked, is used in curing many disorders of the digestive tract especially constipation and piles, and killing intestinal worms (Goyal and Grewal, 2003; Gupta, 2010).

The decoction of fruit and bark is found to be carminative and aphrodisiac, and has been used to treat ulcer, cough, asthma, and stomach aches (Dalziel, 1948; Goodman and Ghafoor, 1992; Ilahi, 2008). The decoction of ground stems and leaves has been used for the treatment of pyorrhoea. C. decidua has also been found useful in treatment of facial paralysis and enlarged spleen (Gupta, 2010). It has also been found effective against cardiac disorders, phthisis, and scurvy (Shekhawat and Batra, 2006).

Powder of tender leaves and top shoots is an antidote to poisons and is applied to heal blisters, swellings, boils, and eruptions. Stem relieves toothache when chewed (Nadkarni, 2009). The root bark of the plant possessed anthelmintic and purgative properties, and its alcoholic extract exhibited significant antibacterial and antifungal activities (Singh et al., 2011; Singh and Singh, 2011; Tlili et al., 2011; Mohammed et al., 2014). Paste of root is applied on scorpion bite and the powdered coal from stem of C. decidua repaired fractures of bones (Meena and Yadav, 2010). Extensive literature regarding its folk uses is present which proves the pharmacological importance of this plant (Table 4).

Table 4 Common medicinal uses of different parts of Capparis decidua.
Plant part used Folk medicinal use References
Tender leaves Plastering boils Nadkarni (2009)
Leaves Act as appetizer, cardioprotective Singh and Singh (2011)
Bark Used against intermittent fever and rheumatism, analgesic diaphoretic, laxative, antihelmenthic, cures cough and asthama Dalziel (1948) and Ilahi (2008)
Immature fruit Cures constipation, kills intestinal worms Goyal and Grewal (2003), Gupta (2010) and Goyal and Sharma (2009)
Flower buds Renal disinfectant, diuretic, tonic, potherb formation Dahot (1993)
Root Purgative activity, Cures bronchial disorders, antidote to scorpion bite Meena and Yadav (2010) and Shah et al. (2013)
Fruit Astringent properties, treats dysentery, cholera and intermittent fever Dalziel (1948) and Shah et al. (2013)
Stem Used in alveolaris and pyorrhoea, antifertility drug, toothache reliever Nadkarni (2009) and Singh and Singh (2011)
Seeds Antibacterial activity, treat urinary purulent discharges Singh and Singh (2011)

5

5 Nutritional value

Malnutrition is a basic cause of different ailments in population residing in developing and under developed countries of the world. Women and children are mostly affected by malnutrition. In Pakistan, 38% children with the age group of six months to five years are reported as underweight due to malnutrition (Gull et al., 2015). C. decidua is one of the drought tolerant plants being consumed by livestock for its nutrition (Younas et al., 2016). Since ancient times, caper berry pickle has been used by the people of arid and semi-arid regions as a good source of protein, carbohydrates, and vitamins (Ozcan, 2005; Gupta and Sharma, 2007; Romeo et al., 2007). The branches are used as fodder for goats and cattle due to its good nutritional quality (Younas et al., 2016). Crude protein, neutral fibers, and minerals of the plant played vital role in maintenance of biochemical metabolism and physiological functions of both the human beings and livestock (Soetan et al., 2010). A few studies have been conducted to investigate the biochemical composition of C. decidua. Results indicated that the plant is a potential source of nutrients (Duhan et al., 1992; Chadda, 2008). The nutritional quality of caper fruit and bud is at par with or even better than many vegetables. The composition of C. decidua fruit is given in Table 5 (Chauhan et al., 1986; Kumar et al., 2013).

Table 5 Nutrient composition of C. decidua.
Components Nutritional contents Components Nutritional contents
Total carbohydrates 73.48% Hemicellulose 11.45%
Digestible carbohydrates 59.41% Cellulose 8.91%
Neutral fiber 30.48% Lignin 7.62%
Soluble carbohydrates 18.03% Fats 7.43%
Starch 15.28% Ash 5.96%
Protein 14.88% Proline 11.76 mg/100 g
Crude fibre 12.32% β-carotene 5.4 mg/100 g
Ascorbic acid 120 mg/100 g Calcium 90 mg/100 g
Sodium 160 mg/100 g Phosphorous 179 mg/100 g
Magnesium 49.16 mg/100 g Iron 3.5 mg/100 g
Copper 1.1 mg/100 g Zinc 1.6 mg/100 g

Carbohydrates are the major constituents of caper fruits as well as buds followed by crude proteins and neutral fibers (Bala and Goyal, 1999; Goyal and Grewal, 2003; Kumar et al., 2011). C. decidua fruits are rich in proximate contents particularly proteins, followed by the flowers while stem bark and roots are major source of fiber. Minerals profile of plants is a key factor to assess a plant’s edible acceptability. The mineral content of the plant (Na, K, Ca, Zn, Mn, Fe) is found to be high while heavy metals i.e., Ni, Co and Cd are present in trace concentration in all parts of C. decidua which could be an advantage for its use as fodder or vegetable (Gull et al., 2015).

6

6 Production of biofuels

Bio-diesel is an eco-friendly fuel, (Foidl et al., 1996; Foidl and Eder, 1997) with negligible sulphur content, almost no aromatics and about 10% built-in oxygen. Biodiesel is preferred over other conventional fuels owing to its energy security, employment generation, economic gain, social security and environmental impacts (Vivek and Gupta, 2004). Biodiesel is considered less toxic to the environment due to the reduced emission of CO2, CO, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter. Biodiesel, a promising future of the fuel industry, is obtained by in-situ trans-esterification reaction. This technique involves the conversion of triglycerides to monoalkyl esters of long chain fatty acids (Vivek and Gupta, 2004).

The seeds of C. decidua yielded fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) by in-situ trans-esterification. The optimum yield of biodiesel with 0.08 N KOH was found to be 63.75% at 800 °C, normal pressure and 300 rpm oscillations for 60 min. The technique is considered eco-friendly because of no use of the harmful organic solvents (Pokharkar et al., 2008).

7

7 Isolation of phytochemicals

7.1

7.1 Isolation of alkaloids

Aqueous MeOH (1:1, w/v) was used to extract root bark of C. decidua. It was then concentrated and four alkaloids cadabicine (1, 435 Da), codonocarpine (2, 465 Da), isocodonocarpine (3, 465 Da), and capparidisinine (4, 495 Da) were isolated using different chromatographic techniques such as column and thin layer (Forster et al., 2016, 2017). In another study, roots were extracted with ethanol and chromatographed to isolate colourless, crystalline, and hygroscopic alkaloids such as capparine (mp 236 °C) cappariline (mp 188 °C), and capparinine (mp 229 °C) on neutral alumina column using chloroform-methanol (90:10, 80:20, 50:50, and 20:80) (Ahmad et al., 1992). In a previous study, roughly ground defatted plant material was extracted with ethanol using continuous hot extraction method. Then the alcohol content was separated from the extract in-vacuo until the formation of a semi-solid residue, which was suspended in 400 mL of distilled water, shaked for two h and filtered. Presence of alkaloids was indicated in the combined aqueous filtrates. Alkaloids were precipitated out as yellowish-brown precipitates (Gaind and Juneja, 1969).

7.2

7.2 Isolation of saponins

Ground plant material was mixed with 50 mL of 20% aqueous ethanol and resultant suspension was heated with continuous stirring over a hot water bath for 4 h at about 55 °C. The mixture was filtered and then residue was re-extracted with fresh 50 mL of 20% aqueous ethanol. The extract was concentrated to 10 mL over water bath at about 90 °C and then fractionated in separating funnel into diethyl ether and aqueous fractions. The aqueous layer was recovered and 15 mL of n-butanol was added to it. The combined n-butanol extracts washed twice with 10 mL 5% aqueous sodium chloride. The remaining solution was heated over water bath to obtain the saponins (Obadoni and Ochuko, 2001).

7.3

7.3 Isolation of tannins

5 g of the dried fruit sample was stirred with 50 mL distilled water for 1 h in a shaker. The filtrate was diluted to 50 mL with distilled water. This filtrate (5 mL) was mixed with 3 mL of 0.1 M FeCl3 in 0.1 N HCl and 0.008 M potassium ferrocyanide. The absorbance of the solution was measured at 605 nm within 10 min. The same procedure was repeated with the blank. The standard used was tannin acid (100 ppm) solution (Van-Buren and Robinson, 1969).

7.4

7.4 Isolation of phenolic compounds

Folin Ciocalteu (FC) reagent method was used to determined total phenols (McDonald et al., 2001). Aqueous extract of fruit (100 μL) was shaken with 1.150 mL of distilled water and 250 μL of FC reagents and then 1.5 mL of 20% Na2CO3 was added. The solution was diluted with distilled water (2 mL) after 2 h and absorbance was noted at 765 nm. Gallic acid (0–100 μg/mL) was used as standard for preparation of calibration curve. Total phenolic values were expressed in terms of gallic acid equivalent (mg g–1 of dry extract).

In another study, isolation of phenolic compounds were carried out using a method established by Markham (Markham, 1982). The air-dried plant material (100 g) was dumped into 1000 mL of methanol-water solution (85:15 v/v). After keeping 24 h in dark, the suspension was filtered through Buchner funnel and the filtrate was subjected to concentration on a rotary evaporator to give crude extract (CE). Lipid fraction was eliminated by extraction with hexane. The water fraction was then re-extracted with chloroform and ethyl acetate, each fraction being evaporated to dryness. Then 0.1 mL of plant extract was mixed with 2.5 mL of distilled water and 0.5 mL of the Folin–Ciocalteu stock reagent leaving it for 5 min. Then 1.0 mL of Na2CO3 reagent (20%) was added to the mixture. The mixture was left for 1 h at room temperature. Absorbance of the mixture was measured with the help of spectrophotometer at wavelength 760 nm. Polyphenol content was calculated from a standard curve of gallic acid and expressed as gallic acid equivalent (mg g–1 of dry extract) (Baghiani et al., 2012).

7.5

7.5 Isolation of flavonoids

Aluminium chloride (AlCl3) colorimetric method was used for determination of flavonoids (Chang et al., 2002). Fruit extract (250 μL) of C. decidua was diluted with distilled water (4.5 mL) and then NaNO2 (5%, 0.3 mL) was added. After 5 min, AlCl3 (10%, 0.3 mL) was mixed with solution. After 6 min, NaOH (1 M, 2 mL) solution was mixed with prepared solution and volume was made up to 10 mL with distilled water. The absorbance was noted at 510 nm using rutin as standard (Behnaz et al., 2013). Baghiani et al., (2012) quantified flavonoids in terms of quercetin equivalents. AlCl3 reagent was used for flavonoids measurement by UV spectroscopy (Baghiani et al., 2012; Bahorun et al., 1996). A mixture was prepared by mixing 1 mL of plant root extract, 1 mL of aerial extract, 1 mL of AlCl3 in methanol. Leaving at room temperature for 10 min, the absorbance of mixture was obtained at 430 nm. In another study, powdered leaves of C. decidua were extracted with 80% hot ethanol on a water bath for 24 h. (Subramanian and Nagarajan, 1969). The extracts were concentrated and re-extracted with petroleum ether, ether and ethyl acetate in succession. Ethyl acetate fraction was dried in-vacuo and the concentrate was treated with 7% H2SO4 for 2 h. The fraction was filtered, concentrated and applied on TLC plates. The plates were treated with the solvent system n-butanol, acetic acid and water (4:1:5). Kaempferol and quercetin were detected on the plate, which were then isolated through preparative TLC (Kapoor and Mishra, 2013).

7.6

7.6 Total flavonol determination

The fruit extract (250 μL) was mixed with ethanol (1.0 mL) followed by addition of aluminium chloride solution (2%, 1.0 mL). It was further incubated with sodium acetate solution (5%, 3 mL) at 20 °C for 2.5 h and absorbance was noted at 440 nm using rutin as standard for calibration curve. The flavonol content was expressed in mg of rutin equivalents (RE) per gram of dry weight of sample (Miliauskas et al., 2004).

7.6.1

7.6.1 Isolation of lipid compounds

Air dried bark of C. decidua converted into coarse powder and subjected to continuous hot extraction using petroleum ether, ether, chloroform, acetone and ethanol as solvents. Obtained extracts were evaporated to constant weights. Petroleum ether extract was then subjected to saponification to separate the non-saponifable content. A brown non-crystalline matter was obtained, which was then passed through a column of alumina. A total of 30 eluate fractions were collected. First five with petroleum ether followed with benzene till 9th, then a mixture of benzene with ether (4:1) till 18th, next dry ether till 28th, and lastly absolute ethanol. Crystals were obtained during elution with a mixture of benzene and ether (4:1) in fraction 11–17 with m. p. of 78–79 °C. The combustion data report C-81.98, H-14.01 calculated for C30H62O. The acetate derivative of compound melted at 68 °C and this substance corresponds to n-triacontanol. During elution with dry ether, another crystalline product was obtained in fractions 19–26. This product gave affirmative results with Hesses, Liebermann and Liebermann-Burchard tests. The pure crystals of this product melted at 136–137 °C. The m.p. of the substance, its acetate derivative and its optical rotation corresponds to β-sitosterol (Gaind et al., 1969).

Upadhyay et al., (2012) extracted triacontanol from the stem of C. decidua. Powdered stem was extracted successively with CHCl3/MeOH (1:1), cold MeOH and hot MeOH. Bioactive compounds were isolated from resultant dry extract using column chromatography. Silica gel (60–80) was used as an adsorbent along with petroleum ether in the column. Elution was brought about with petroleum ether/chloroform, and chloroform, chloroform/methanol mixtures of increasing polarity. Triacontanol was isolated and characterized (Upadhyay et al., 2012).

8

8 Pharmacological attributes

A number of biological and pharmacological activities are attributed to different parts of C. decidua owing to presence of a wide array of phytochemicals (Rathee et al., 2010a, 201b).

8.1

8.1 Antidiabetic activity

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic inability of the cell to uptake glucose from the blood stream. This inability may be congenital (type I insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus) or acquired (type II noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus) (Abesundara et al., 2004). Nowadays pharmacologists are focused on plants to treat various ailments. Diabetes can be treated by decreasing postprandial hyperglycaemia, which can be achieved by inhibition of the enzymes (α-amylase and α-glucosidase) responsible for hydrolysing carbohydrates into glucose in the digestive tract (Jaysari et al., 2009). Thus, the plants which have reasonable concentration of α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitors can be used for the treatment of diabetes. Among such plants, C. decidua has proven its identity as a potential antidiabetic candidate. Fruit extracts of this plant showed significant inhibitory effect on both enzymes, followed by flowers and leaves extracts (Zia-ul-Haq et al., 2011). Administration of diet containing C. decidua fruit powder (30%) to alloxan (80 mg/kg IP) induced diabetic rats for 3 weeks exhibited significant hypoglycaemic activity (Yadav et al., 1997a, 1997b). In another study, it was observed that alkaloid fraction of C. decidua has proven beneficial in the treatment of diabetes (Sharma et al., 2010). In another study, it was investigated that methanol (300 mg/kg) and purified (30 mg/kg) extracts of stem reduced blood glucose levels in normal and diabetic rats when studied by glucose tolerance test (Dangi and Mishra, 2010).

8.2

8.2 Antiparasitic activity

Parasites have been causing many health problems in human beings and animals since long (Mali and Mehta, 2008). Among parasitic infections, helminthic infections are the most common among human beings. Helminthic infestations affected public health directly and indirectly by compromising animal’s immunity and contributing to other diseases such as anaemia, malnutrition, eosinophilia, and pneumonia (Bundy, 1994; Garedaghi et al., 2011). Synthetic anthelmintics are often disregarded because of their high prices, unavailability and scarcity in remote areas, side effects, and induced resistance of targeted parasites (Jabbar et al., 2006; Saeed et al., 2007; Ji et al., 2012). The zetetic approach regarding a safer and more convenient way of controlling parasites has led to the extensive exploration of the efficacy of ethno-botanicals (Mathias, 2004). The application of plants for resolving this problem is cost effective (Ghotge et al., 2002), and free of any side effects making them a valid substitute of allopathic anthelmintics (Chagas et al., 2008; Tetik et al., 2013). In this regard, ethanolic extract of caper root bark was tested against Pheretima posthuma. It possessed significant dose dependant anthelmintic activity. Fruit pulp also exhibited anthelmintic activity (Gaind et al., 1969; Mali et al., 2004; Mali and Mehta, 2008; Rathee et al., 2010a, 201b).

Giardia lamblia is a eukaryotic parasite that colonized the small intestine and caused diarrhoea in humans and other mammals (Adam, 2001). Many plants have been reported to have potent antigiardial activity (Hassan et al., 2011; Elhadi et al., 2013). Twig extracts (petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, n-butanol) of C. decidua possessed significant dose and time dependent antigiardial activity. It was observed that petroleum ether extract was the most effective among these extracts (Abdalrahman et al., 2016).

8.3

8.3 Anti-aging, antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities

The dermatologic changes developed under the influence of age or exposure to ultraviolet radiations (UVR) is collectively known as skin aging (Gilchrest, 1989; Sander et al., 2002). The major reason of oxidative stress in skin is the exposure to UV radiations, causing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and leading to the development of skin problems such as wrinkle formation, lesions, and cancer (Masaki, 2010; Zima et al., 2001). Phyto-extracts, exogenous antioxidants capture ROS and acted as anti-aging agents (McArdle et al., 2002; Jadoon et al., 2015; Jaysari et al., 2009; Wang and Zheng, 2001). Regarding this, C. decidua is rich in bioactive compounds such as isothiocyanate glucoside, glucocapparin, stachydrine, n-triacontane, β-carotene and β-sitosterol (Singh et al., 2011). The water-in-oil emulsion cream of methanolic extract of C. decidua reduces the skin sebum level. The antioxidants responsible for this activity of the plant are isoginkgetin and ginkgetin (Zaman et al., 2012).

Oxidation process is considered responsible for many chronic diseases. Antioxidant compounds scavenge different ROS such as peroxide (O2−), hydroperoxide (HO−), and lipid peroxyls (free radicals) thus retarding the oxidation process (Choi et al., 2012). Administration of powdered fruit of C. decidua reduces the detrimental effects of oxidative stress in the alloxan induced lipid peroxidation with simultaneous alteration of superoxide dismutase and catalase enzymes in erythrocytes, kidney and heart (Yadav et al., 1997a, 1997b). Methanolic extract of C. decidua stem significantly reduced blood glucose levels in diabetic rats and scavenges the free radicals, thereby providing protection against lipid peroxidation (Dangi and Mishra, 2011).

C. decidua has been traditionally used for the treatment of jaundice (Singh et al., 2011). The methanolic and aqueous extracts of stem demonstrated significant hepatoprotective activity against CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Oral administration of aqueous and methanolic extracts of C. decidua stem (200 and 400 mg kg−1 body weight) for 10 days reduced the hepatotoxicity induced by the intake of CCl4 at a dose of 0.2 mL kg−1. Significant decline in the level of serum aspartate amino transferase, alanine amino transferase, alkaline phosphatase and bilirubin was also observed. The hepatoprotective effect could be due to alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, sterols, saponins, cyanogenic glycosides, and coumarins present in plant extracts (Ali et al., 2009; Aghel et al., 2010).

8.4

8.4 Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities

The repair process of tissues is inevitably associated with pain and inflammation. Analgesic drugs relieved pain by acting on the peripheral or central nervous system (Hunskaar and Hole, 1997). Numerous herbal analgesics had been used by the ethnic people without any side effect since time immemorial (Bown, 2008). The hydro-ethanol extract of C. decidua possessed potent analgesic and antinociceptive activities which could be attributed to the presence of bioactive compounds like flavonoids, steroids, triterpenes, diterpenes, alkaloids and tannins. The analgesic activity of C. decidua hydro-ethanolic extract is considered to be mediated peripherally by inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis as well as central inhibitory mechanism. This pathway may provide a potential base for management of pain (Dev et al., 2015). Ethnic people have been exploiting plants for their anti-inflammatory potential since time immemorial (Yankauer, 1997; Ratheesh and Helen, 2007). Methanolic and chloroform extracts of C. decidua exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activity with an effective dose of 200 mg/kg body weight. The percentage inhibition of methanolic and chloroform extracts was found to be 64.0 and 65.0% respectively making it a good antiedematous agent (Mohammed et al., 2012).

8.5

8.5 Antirheumatic and anti-gout activities

Rheumatism is leading cause of incessant inflammation of joints. The symptoms of the disease included being fatigue, loss of energy, low-grade fever, muscle, joints pain, and stiffness. About 0.5–1% of the world population is suffering from this problem (Lawrence et al., 1998). Women are more affected than men with prevalence of disease increasing with age. Many plants have been reported to have anti rheumatic potential. The flower and fruit of C. decidua are soaked in water and juice is used for the treatment of rheumatism (Kamal et al., 2016).

Gout is a disorder in purine metabolism which leads to the accumulation of uric acid crystals in the form of monosodium urate crystal in joints and the adjacent tissues. The accumulation of these crystals results in inflammation because of the local-immune mediated reactions. C. decidua has been reported to have potent antigout activity (Kumar and Azmi, 2014).

8.6

8.6 Anti-platelet activity

Platelets played a key role in the maintenance of homeostasis thrombotic processes. During injury, loss of blood is checked by formation of the homeostatic plug formed through the interaction between platelets, vascular walls, and plasma proteins (Saengkhae et al., 2008). Cardiovascular diseases developed as a result of platelets dysfunctions owing to reduction in primary and secondary coronary events (Juul-Moller et al., 1992; Verheugt and Smith, 2005; Hennekens, 1998). The methanolic extract of aerial parts of C. decidua contains two sesquiterpene lactones, germacr-3β-ol-7,9-dien-6,14-olide-15-oic acid, and germacr-3β-ol-12-ene-6,14-olide-15-oic acid which inhibited dose-dependent arachidonic acid induced platelet aggregation. Significant antiplatelet activity is manifested by these sesquiterpene lactones, thus paving a way for the development of more potent analogues (Mohammed et al., 2014).

8.7

8.7 Hypolipidemic and antiatherosclerotic activities

Cardiac ailments have been proved to be the major cause of mortality around the globe over the last few decades (Ogbonnia et al., 2008). Plant extracts are used as cardioprotective phytomaterials due to their lipid lowering activity (Ram et al., 1997; Sharma et al., 1997; Nancy et al., 2011; Olas et al., 2005). The ethanolic extracts of various parts of C. decidua caused prominent reduction in level of plasma cholesterol in STZ-diabetic rats, the most significant effect being produced by the bark and fruit extracts (Chahlia, 2009). Liver (Mutalik et al., 2005) and heart cholesterol levels are significantly reduced by the administration of flower and fruit extracts of C. decidua (Chahlia, 2009). The hypolipidemic effect of C. decidua could be explained on the basis of presence of saponins and tanins in the ethanolic extract which ceased the absorption of lipids hence used as hypocholesterolemic (Goyal and Grewal, 2003). Fraction of stem of C. aphylla purified by chromatographic techniques reduced total plasma cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoproteins however high-density lipoproteins were increased when studied in diabetic rats (Dangi and Mishra, 2010).

Atherosclerosis leads to the development of cardiovascular diseases which is one of the major causes of death worldwide (Pedersen, 2001). Atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases are enhanced by the elevated levels of cholesterol and LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol levels in serum (Pedersen, 2001; Agarwal and Chauhan, 1988; Pai et al., 2004). Ethanolic extract of C. decidua is reported to lower the blood cholesterol levels by decreasing the reabsorption of cholesterol from internal source along with the increase in its expulsion through faeces in the form of neutral steroids (Mehta et al., 2003). Reduction in the level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) increases the risk of coronary artery diseases (Boden and Pearson, 2000) because HDL helps in the efflux of cholesterol from the walls of artery and shifting it back to the liver. The ratio of HDL-cholesterol to total cholesterol falls significantly in the rabbits which are fed with atherodiet plus cholesterol. Feeding these rabbits with ethanolic (50%) extract of C. decidua flower brings this ratio back to the normal value verifying the significant antiatherosclerotic activity (Purohit and Vyas, 2006).

8.8

8.8 Anti-tumor activity

The most common and applied treatment modality for cancer is chemotherapy (Change, 2016). Many plants such as Catharanthus roseus, Podophyllum peltatum, Paeonia. emodii, Taxus brevifolia, Ochrosia elliptica and Campototheca acuminata are reported to possess potent anticancerous activity and are found useful for the inhibition of early stages of cancer development (Kinghorn and Balandrin, 1993). Stachydrine is an alkaloid isolated from Capparis species found over the globe (Mukhamedova et al., 1969; Sadykov and Khodzhimatov, 1981). Stachydrine possessed significant cytotoxic effect on prostate cancer cells and results in a considerable inhibition of expression of chemokine receptors. Anti-invasive and anti-metastatic nature of stachydrine makes it a competent candidate for the development of anticancer drugs (Rathee et al., 2012). Lectin is present in the seeds of Capparis sp. that manifests significant anti-HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibition activity and also checks the proliferation of hepatoma HepG2 and breast cancer MCF-7 cells (Luecha et al., 2009).

8.9

8.9 Antihypertensive activity

The ethanolic extract of C. decidua caused dose-dependent decline in the systolic, diastolic, and mean blood pressure in anaesthetized rats. A reduction of 20, 30 and 47% occurs in mean arterial blood pressure by the administration of 1, 3 and 10 mg/kg of ethanolic extracts respectively (Eldeen and Staden, 2008). The probable mechanism responsible for hypotensive activity of this plant is its non-specific relaxing effect on the cardiac and smooth muscle tissues leading to its antihypertensive and bradycardiac effects (Singh et al., 2011).

In another study, C. aphylla extract administered (3–100 mg/kg) intravenously to anaesthetize rats decreased mean arterial pressure. Moreover, phenylephrine (1 μM) and high K+ (80 mM) precontractions were inhibited by C. aphylla extract in isolated aortic rings of rabbits due to blocking of calcium channels. Similarly, the rate and force of atrial contraction were repressed by C. aphylla extract in guinea pigs. The study concluded that C. aphylla extract decreased blood pressure by cardiac depressant and vasodilator effect (Shah and Gilani, 2011).

8.10

8.10 Anticonvulsant and antifertility activities

The alcoholic extract of aerial parts of C. decidua was evaluated for its effects on the central nervous system (CNS). The results of barbiturate-induced sleeping test and pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures test showed that C. decidua resulted in increased sleeping time and decreased the convulsions in a dose-dependent manner. These results lead to the conclusion that C. decidua possess significant CNS depressant and anticonvulsant activities (Goyal et al., 2009).

Whole plant of C. aphylla was extracted with ethanol and administered to adult albino rats to study its antifertility effect. The rats lost their fertility owing to decrease in epididymal sperm count and motility. Decline in bi- and multinucleate cells was also noted along with changes histoarchitecture of testis. It was concluded that whole plant extract was male contraceptive (Revathi et al., 2010).

8.11

8.11 Antibacterial and antifungal activities

Bacteria have become resistant against the antibiotics because of the intensified clinical use of these drugs. Research in the field of microbiology is focusing on the management of these resistant bacterial strains. In this scenario, the importance of plant based anti-microbial drugs has increased and effective medicinal plants are being explored (Chan et al., 2007; Abirami et al., 2012; Gull et al., 2015). Phytochemicals such as isoflavones, gamma thionin, and homoisoflavinoids have been conventionally used for their antimicrobial applications (Franco et al., 2006; Mhaeswara and Rao, 2006). Apart from these phytoconstituents, plant extracts rich in sulphur have also been explored for their potential antibacterial activity (Azaz et al., 2002; Iscan et al., 2002; Kalemba and Kunicka, 2003). C. decidua possessed potent biocidal activity (Perez et al., 2005, 2006a, 2006b; Upadhyay et al., 2010a; Upadhyay, 2013). Different parts of the plant are found to be effective against different bacterial species (Bacillus subtilis, Pasteurella multocida, Escherichia coli and Staphlyococcus aureus) (Gull et al., 2015).

Antibacterial capability of C. decidua is attributed to the wide array of phenolics and flavonoids present in the plant extracts (Zia-ul-Haq et al., 2011; Imran et al., 2014). Sharma and Kumar (2008) scrutinized the antimicrobial potential of different flavonoid compounds found in various parts of Tridax procumbens and C. decidua using disc diffusion assay. The experimental organisms were E. coli and Proteus mirabilis (Gram-negative bacteria), S. aureus (Gram-positive bacterium), and Candida albicans (Fungi). Microbroth dilution method was used for the determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the extracts, whereas minimum antimicrobial concentrations were determined by sub-culturing of relevant samples. The results clearly declared the significant antimicrobial activity of extracts from both T. procumbens and C. decidua. The order of vulnerability of the microbes was found to be C. albicans followed by S. aureus, P. mirabilis, and E. coli. Caper extracts showed selective antimicrobial activity (Mali et al., 2004). Isothiocyanate aglycon present in C. decidua seeds retarded the growth of gram negative bacteria such as Vibrio cholera, V. ogava, V. inaba, V. ettor, and V. eltor (Gaind et al., 1972; Joseph and Jini, 2011; Juneja et al., 1971).

The methanolic extracts of C. decidua wood, bark and seeds exhibited potent concentration-dependent antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, C. albicans, Fusarium moniliforme, Phytophthora sp., Penicillium sp., Mucor sp. Trichophyton mentagrophytes, and T. violaceum. The bark showed maximum and wood demonstrated minimum activities. The range of inhibition zones of the plant extracts was found to be 17–22 mm (Tlili et al., 2011; Tripathi et al., 2015; Abdalrahman et al., 2016). The fruit and flower extracts of C. decidua possessed potential to prevent the formation of plaque by inhibition of bacterial growth (Rathee et al., 2010a, 201b). Fruit extract of C. decidua is reported to exhibit anti-tubercular activity (Bundeally et al., 1962; Abra and Ali, 2011). Summary of pharmacological attributes of C. decidua is given in Table 6.

Table 6 Pharmacological attributes of various parts of plant.
Pharmacological attributes Plant part used References
Antidiabetic Flowers, fruits, leaves Zia-ul-Haq et al. (2011), Yadav et al. (1997a) and Yadav et al. (1997b)
Anti-parasitic Root bark, fruit pulp Gaind et al. (1969), Mali et al. (2004), Mali and Mehta (2008) and Rathee et al. (2010a, 201b)
Twigs Abdalrahman et al. (2016)
Antioxidant Fruits Yadav et al. (1997a, 1997b) and Dangi and Mishra (2011)
Hepatoprotective Stem Ali et al. (2009)
Anti-inflammatory Whole plant Mohammed et al. (2012)
Anti-rheumatic Flower, fruit Kamal et al. (2016)
Anti-gout Whole plant Kumar and Azmi (2014)
Anti-platelet Whole plant Mohammed et al. (2014)
Hypolipidemic Flower, fruit Goyal and Grewal (2003)
Antiatherosclerotic Flower Purohit and Vyas (2006)
Anti-tumor Seeds Luecha et al. (2009)
Antihypertensive Whole plant Eldeen and Staden (2008)
Anticonvulsant Aerial parts Goyal et al. (2009)
Microbicidal Root, bark, seeds, fruit, flower Gull et al. (2015), Mali et al. (2004), Tlili et al. (2011), Tripathi et al. (2015) and Abdalrahman et al. (2016)

9

9 Conclusion and future prospects

Capparis decidua has found extensive ethnomedicinal uses including antirheumatic, analgesic, anthelmintic, laxative, renal disinfectant, diuretic, fever, boils, toothache, dysentery, cholera, cardiovascular diseases and the disorders of the digestive tract. The presence of a wide array of biologically active phytochemicals lends the plant its diverse pharmacological activities, some of which are antidiabetic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-aging, anti-tumor, antinociceptive, antiatherosclerotic, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, antigiardial, antihypertensive, hypolipidemic, and anti-inflammatory activities. The use of C. decidua in rheumatism and gout is prevailed in the local communities of Asia. This attribute of the plant can be exploited by propagation and commercialization of these plants for the isolation of potential chemicals for the treatment of rheumatism. Because of the presence of different antioxidants, C. decidua can be used in anti-aging cosmetics. These plants are a good source of food because of the high carbohydrates and protein content of their fruit and high lipid profile of the seeds. But there is still a need to conduct further scientific-based study to explore the nutritional value of this plant, so that it may contribute to the growing need of food for the increasing population of the world. Anticancer activity of this plant material has been related to the presence of highly potential terpenoidal glycosides. The root bark and stem of C. decidua contain different terpenoids which make the plant compatible for the treatment of cancer. Although some studied have done to reveal the anticancer properties of the plant, its true potential is yet to be revealed.

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