Translate this page into:
Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich. seed oil: Chemical composition and antiproliferative effect on human colonic adenocarcinoma and fibrosarcoma cancer cell lines
⁎Corresponding author at: Laboratoire des Substances Naturelles (LR10 INRAP02), Institut National de Recherche et d’Analyse Physico-chimique, Pôle Technologique, Sidi Thabet, 2020 Ariana, Tunisia. Tel.: +216 21483897; fax: +216 71537688. Imen.touihri@gmail.com (Imen Touihri)
-
Received: ,
Accepted: ,
This article was originally published by Elsevier and was migrated to Scientific Scholar after the change of Publisher.
Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.
Abstract
In this work the physicochemical characteristics including fatty acids, tocopherols and sterols composition of Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich seed oil was determined. Results showed that linoleic acid (48.64%) and punicic acid (22.38%) were the major polyunsaturated fatty acids. Among the phytosterols, β-sitosterol was the most abundant (396.25 mg/100 g), while the major tocopherol form was γ-tocopherol (44.23 mg/100 g). In addition, we evaluated for the first time the effect of E. elaterium seed oil on the growth of human colonic adenocarcinoma (HT29) and fibrosarcoma (HT1080) cell lines. The original finding was its potent antiproliferative effect on both tumour cell lines. This effect was dose-dependent, with half-maximal inhibition values of IC50 = 4.86 μg/ml and 4.16 μg/ml respectively. This pilot study opens the way for further investigation about the potential use of E. elaterium as an anticancer agent.
Keywords
Ecballium elaterium
Seed oil
Chemical composition
Antiproliferative activity
Colon cancer
- E. elaterium
-
Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich.
- GC–FID
-
Gas chromatography equipped with flame ionization detector
- HPLC
-
high-performance liquid chromatography
- HT29
-
human colon adenocarcinoma cell lines
- HT1080
-
human colon fibrosarcoma cell lines
Abbreviations
1 Introduction
Wild plant species have always played an important medicinal role in the history of man. Through academic research, pharmaceutical sciences may take profit from the available bioresources, and ethnobotanical as well as ethnopharmacological approaches that would be of interest.
Ecballium elaterium (L). A. Rich. a wild perennial herb with sub-succulent, hairy leaves and stems, is widely used in Tunisian folk medicine and possesses therapeutic activities against a wide range of ailments (Le Floc’h, 1983; Boukef, 1986). The mature seeds are the oil-bearing part of the fruit (Alapetite, 1979) and the watery juice inside the fruit yields a powerful drug called “elaterium”. It also contains proteins, lipids, cucurbitacins (B, D, E, I and L,) and cucurbitacin derivatives such as glycosylcucurbitacins and triterpenoids glycosides (Lavie and Szinai, 1958; Erclyes et al., 1989; Heitz et al., 1989; Greige-Gerges et al., 2007). E. elaterium is of interest because its fruits extracts are still used in the Mediterranean region in different medicinal systems (Rust et al., 2003; Uslu et al., 2006). Several biological activities of E. elaterium and its components, including anticancer activity, have also been reported (Lavie and Szinai, 1958; Chan et al., 2010), but there are no reports on the anticancer activities of the fixed oil of this endemic Mediterranean plant.
Cancer remains one of the most dreaded diseases causing an astonishingly high death rate, second only to cardiac arrest. A high number of new drugs derived from plant secondary metabolites have been applied the treatment and prevention of cancer (Newman et al., 2003; Balunas and Kinghorn, 2005).
To our knowledge the cited literature about seeds oil from E. Elaterium only described fatty acid composition (Erclyes et al., 1989). In this work we analyse the physical and chemical properties of the seed oil. Moreover, cell proliferation was fundamental in several biological processes, especially in cancer (Li and Galileo, 2010), we evaluated the effect of E. elaterium seed oil on the proliferation of human colon adenocarcinoma (HT29) and fibrosarcoma (HT1080) cell lines.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Materials
Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) was purchased from GIBCO (Cergy-Pontoise, France) and foetal calf serum (FCS) from BioWhittaker (Fontenay-sous-Bois, France). Penicillin, streptomycin, silylant reagent N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide, sterols standards, fatty acid methyl esters standards, β-carotene, silica gel F254 plate and aluminium oxide were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA). Potassium hydroxide, n-hexane, diethyl ether, ethanol, acetonitrile, acetone, chloroform were purchased from Fluka Chemical Co. (Buchs, Switzerland).
2.2 Extraction of the seed oil
Fruits of E. Elaterium were collected in January 2011 from a region of SidiThabet, area of Ariana (Northern Tunisia, latitude 36°54′45.25″N, longitude 10°06′02.10″E, altitude 30 m). The identification was made by Professor S. BEN SAAD (Department of Botany, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis) and voucher specimens (BPn 02-January 2011) were deposited at the above-mentioned laboratory of Natural Substances to serve as a future reference.
Seeds were removed from the mature fruits, washed with water, dried, and then ground by a grinder to pass 500 μm screens. The ground dried E. elaterium seeds (50 g) were extracted with 250 mL n-hexane using 24 cycles Soxhlet extraction at 80 °C. The solvent was removed via a rotary vacuum distillation at 40 °C. The residue was weighed and stored at −20 °C until analysis. The result was expressed as lipid percentage in the seed powder dry matter.
2.3 Physico-chemical analysis
The refractive index of the seed oil was determined using a Sopelem Series 3296 refractometer (Sopelem, France). The content of chlorophyll pigment was determined according to AOCS Official Method Cc 13i-96 (AOCS, 1998) by measuring absorbance at 630, 670 and 710 nm. The carotenoid content was determined according to official method (958.05) (AOAC, 1999), and expressed as μg of β-carotene per g of oil. The absorbance was recorded at 440 nm (JASCO V- 530, WITEG Labortechnik., Gmbh, Germany) using hexane as blank.
For chemical analysis, acid, iodine and saponification values were determined respectively according to the Norm ISO 660, ISO 3961 (ISO, 1996) and ISO 3657 (ISO, 2002).
2.4 Fatty acid composition
The fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) composition was determined by the conversion of oil to fatty acid methyl esters prepared by adding 1 ml of n-hexane to 40 mg of oil followed by 200 μL of sodium methoxide 2 mol/L. The mixture was heated at 50 °C for few seconds followed by the addition of 200 μL HCl 2 mol/L. The top layer (1 μL) was injected onto a Gas chromatography (GC) (Agilent 6890 N, California, USA) equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID) and a polar capillary column (HP-Innowax polyethylene glycol, 0.25 mm internal diameter, 30 min length and 0.25 μm film in thickness) to obtain individual peaks of fatty acid methyl esters. The detector temperature was 275 °C and the column temperature was 150 °C held for 1 min and increased at the rate of 15 °C/min to 200 °C and the rate of 2 °C/min to 250 and held for four min. The FAME peaks were identified by comparing their retention times with individual standards. The relative percentage of the fatty acid was calculated on the basis of the peak area of a fatty acid species to the total peaks areas of all the fatty acids in the oil sample.
2.5 Tocopherol composition
Prior to the HPLC analysis, 0.5 g of seed oil was diluted with 5 mL n-hexane and 5 μL samples were injected. The tocopherol composition of E. elaterium seed oil was determined using HPLC (Agilent 1100, CA, USA) consisting of a G1354 quaternary pump, a G1313A standard auto sampler, a G1321A fluorescence detector set at λ excitation of 295 nm, and λ emission of 330 nm according to norm ISO 9936 (ISO, 2006). A normal phase column (Pinnacle II silica); 150 mm × 3.2 mm × 3 μm was used with hexane/isopropanol (99.5/0.5, v/v) as a mobile phase. The system was operated isocratically at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min at 30 °C. The quantification was based on an external standard method. The mixed tocopherol standards in a hexane solution (2 mg/mL) were prepared from the standard compounds: α-, β-, γ-, and δ- tocopherols (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, USA).
2.6 Phytosterol composition
Separation of phytosterols was performed according to the method ISO 12228 (ISO, 1999). Lipids (250 mg) were refluxed for 15 min with 5 mL ethanolic KOH solution (3%, w/v) after addition of cholesterol (1 mg) as an internal standard. The mixture was immediately diluted with 5 mL of ethanol. The unsaponifiable part was eluted over a glass column packed with slurry of aluminium oxide in ethanol and evaporated in a rotary evaporator at 40 °C under reduced pressure. For the characterization of sterols, a silica gel F254 plate was developed in n-hexane/diethyl ether (1:1, v/v) solvent system for the detection of sterols, the thin-layer plate was sprayed with methanol. The sterol bands were scraped from the plate and recovered by extraction with diethyl ether. The sterol trimethylsilyl ether (TMS) derivatives were prepared by adding 100 μL of a silylant reagent N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide/ pyridine (1/10, v/v) in a capped glass vial and heated at 105 °C for 15 min. A mixture of standard solutions of sterols was prepared by derivatization. The TMS derivatives were analysed using the GC system (Agilent 6890N, California, USA) equipped with a FID (flame ionization detector) and the GC chemstation software. A HP-5 column was used (0.32 mm i.d × 30 m in length; 0.25 μm film in thickness; Agilent, CA, USA). The carrier gas (helium) flow was 1.99 mL/min (split–splitless injection with a split ratio of 1:200). Sterols peak identification was carried out according to the ISO 12228 reference method and confirmed by GC–MS (NIST 2002 database) operating in the same conditions as used for the GC–FID. All analytical determinations were performed at least in triplicate.
2.7 Anticancer activities
2.7.1 Cell culture
The human colonic adenocarcinoma (HT29) and fibrosarcoma (HT1080) cancer cell lines were purchased from American type culture Collection Company. Cells were routinely cultured in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% foetal calf serum and 2 mM L-glutamine as a complete growth medium. Cells were maintained in culture and were incubated at 37 °C in a humid atmosphere of 5% CO2. When confluence was about 80%, cells were sub-cultured by splitting with fresh medium at needed density for cytotoxicity and proliferation assay.
2.7.2 Cytotoxicity assay
The cytotoxicity was assessed first by measuring the release of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity into the culture medium upon damage of plasma membrane. Suspended HT29 and HT1080 cells were incubated with E. elaterium seed oil in 96-well plates (100 μl/well). Total release of LDH (100% toxicity) was obtained by adding 0.1% Triton-X100 in culture medium. The supernatants were collected, clarified by centrifugation 5 min at 600 g and 80 μL was submitted to LDH-based cytotoxicity kit (Sigma) in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
In the second time cell viability was assessed by MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. Cells were cultured in standard conditions until confluence in microtiter plates. MTT solution (500 μg/mL final concentration) was added to the culture medium 4 h before the end of treatment. Subsequently, the MTT solution was removed and replaced by 100 μL of DMSO in order to dissolve the precipitated formazan crystals. Finally, the absorbance was measured at 550 nm.
2.7.3 Proliferation assay
For the Proliferation assay cells were obtained in single cell suspension by treatment of subconfluent cell monolayers with trypsin. After centrifugation, cells were washed twice and resuspended with culture medium (5000 cells/100 μL). After 2 h, seed oil was added and cells allowed to proliferate for 72 h at 37 °C in a cell culture incubator. Cells were washed and then fixed by 1% glutaraldehyde. After staining by 0.1% crystal violet, cells were lysed with 1% SDS and the optical density was measured at 600 nm by a microplate reader (Sarray et al., 2007).
2.8 Statistical analysis
All data were expressed as means ± standard deviation of three experiments performed in triplicate. Evaluation of the statistical significance for observed differences between amounts of chemical compounds was performed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s HSD post-hoc test (RStudio, Version 0.97, Boston, USA). Differences between means are considered statistically significant at P < 0.05.
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Physical properties of seed oil
The yield of oil extraction (weight of extracted oil × 100/dry weight of seed) from E. elaterium seeds was 22%. This yield was very close to that of Cucurbita maxima belonging to the cucurbitaceae family with a yield of 21.83% (Stevenson et al., 2007). At room temperature, E. elaterium seed oil was a yellow liquid having a refractive index of 1.48. This value was similar to that of hexane-extracted almond oils, and exceeded those of most common vegetable oils (1.400–1.478) (Padley et al., 1994). The strong absorbance at 470 nm indicates the presence of a high level of carotenoids (4.69 ± 0.03 mg/kg of oil), accounting for the intense yellow colour of E. elaterium seed oil. These carotenoids are beneficial, since they protect against the development of cancer (Verhoeven et al., 1997). The chlorophyll content measured at 630–710 nm, was not significant (0.026 ± 0.04 mg/kg of oil).
3.2 Chemical composition of seed oil
E. elaterium seed oil showed high iodine value (160.12 ± 0.14 g I2/100 g of oil) due to its high content in unsaturated fatty acids. This value gave the oil a good quality for the production of drying oil used for paint purposes (Eromosele et al., 1997). The iodine value of this plant seed oil was higher than that of C. maxima (153.66 g I2/100 g of oil) (Rezig et al., 2012). The high saponification value (191.57 ± 0.034 mg KOH/g of oil) of E. elaterium seed oil indicates high amounts of low molecular weight fatty acids and suggests that this oil can be used for shampoo, shoe-polish and skin cream manufacture (Ajiwe et al, 1998; Cerchiara et al., 2010). This saponification value was higher than that reported for Cucurbita pepo (185.3 ± 0.034 mg KOH/g of oil) (Nyam et al., 2009). E. elaterium seed oil showed a low acid value (2.06 ± 0.02 mg KOH/g of oil), a value lower than that reported in the literature for kernel seed oil (2.82 ± 0.02 mg KOH/g of oil) (El-Adawy and Taha, 2004). The lower acidity showed that this oil is edible and could have a long shelf life (Nyam et al., 2009).
3.2.1 Fatty acid composition
Fatty acid composition of the oil extracted from E. elaterium seed was shown in (Fig. 1). E. elaterium seed oil is characterized by high amounts of unsaturated fatty acids: linoleic acid (48.64%), punicic acid (22.38%) and oleic acid (15.58%) representing about 86% of the total fatty acids (Table 1). These results are in agreement with those found for Citrullus colocynthis (L.) containing high levels of linoleic acid (Nehdi et al, 2013). However, in the Cucurbitaceae family, only E. elaterium growing wild in Mediterranean region was characterized by the presence of punicic acid (Erclyes et al., 1989).
| Peak number | Retention time (min) | Fatty acid | Carbon length | Composition (%)a |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 3.268 | Myristic | C14:0 | 0.09 ± 0.03 |
| 2 | 4.962 | Palmitic | C16:0 | 4.09 ± 0.03 |
| 3 | 5.968 | Stearic | C18:0 | 4.93 ± 0.04 |
| 4 | 7.012 | Oleic | C18:1 | 15.58 ± 0.01 |
| 5 | 11.221 | Linoleic | C18:2 | 48.64 ± 0.03 |
| 6 | 13.248 | Punicic | C18:3 (n-5) | 22.38 ± 0.03 |
| 7 | 21.658 | Arachidic | C20:0 | 0.84 ± 0.02 |
| SAFAb | – | 9.95 | ||
| MUFAc | – | 15.58 | ||
| PUFAd | – | 71.02 | ||
| P/Se | – | 7.13 |
3.2.2 Tocopherols
Due to its antioxidant properties, the dietary intake of the fat-soluble vitamin E has been suggested to reduce cancer risk (Jiang et al., 2004). Thus, the determination of tocopherol content is extremely important, especially in E. elaterium seed oil because there are no data about its chemical composition and biological activities. Table 2 shows the tocopherols content of E. elaterium seed oil. As shown in Fig. 2 the major tocopherols were γ- and δ-tocopherols (44.2 mg/100 g and 12.44 mg/100 g, respectively), while α- and β-tocopherols were less abundant (3.62 and 1.82 mg/100 g, respectively). γ-Tocopherol represents 71% of total tocopherols. The level of tocopherols in E. elaterium (62.11 mg/100 g oil) was very close to that of C. pepo (68 mg/100 g oil), a cultivated species of the cucurbitaceae family (Francois et al., 2006) containing high amounts of γ-tocopherol (96% of the total tocopherols). The oil extracted from C. colocynthis also contained high amount of γ-tocopherol (116 mg/100 g oil) confirming that γ-tocopherols the major tocopherol isomer in seed oil of the cucurbitaceae family (Nehdi et al., 2013).
| Peak number | Retention time (min) | Compounds | Oila (mg/100 g) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1.896 | α-Tocopherols | 3.62 ± 0.03 |
| 2 | 4.112 | β-Tocopherols | 1.82 ± 0.01 |
| 3 | 5.234 | γ-Tocopherols | 44.23 ± 0.02 |
| 4 | 7.846 | δ-Tocopherols | 12.44 ± 0.04 |
| Total | 62.11 |
3.2.3 Sterols
Sterols were one of the unsaponifiable fractions in many oils. They were of interest due to their impact on health. Recently, sterols have been added to vegetable oils to produce functional food (Ntanios, 2001). Phytosterols played major roles in pharmaceutical, nutrition and cosmetic areas (Fernandes and Cabral, 2007). The phytosterol content in vegetable oils was used as a mean of oil characterization, oil derivatives identification, and for quality determination (Ramadan et al., 2006). Table 3 summarizes the phytosterols content in E. elaterium seed oil. As shown in Fig. 3 the most abundant was β-sitosterol (396.25 mg/100 g), which constituted about 50.24% of the total sterol content, followed by campesterol, delta-7-avenasterol, delta-7-stigmastenol, and sitostanol.
| Peak number | Retention time (min) | Compound | Oila (mg/100 g) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 26.168 | Desmosterol | 8.89 ± 0.01 |
| 2 | 28.985 | Campesterol | 139.63 ± 0.02 |
| 3 | 32.896 | Stigmasterol | 6.29 ± 0.01 |
| 4 | 34.942 | Delta-7–campesterol | 19.18 ± 0.06 |
| 5 | 39.762 | β-Sitosterol | 396.25 ± 0.08 |
| 6 | 40.248 | Sitostanol | 21.29 ± 0.09 |
| 7 | 42.734 | Delta-5-avenasterol | 16.44 ± 0.03 |
| 8 | 44.081 | Delta-7–stigmastenol | 86.68 ± 0.01 |
| 9 | 46.294 | Delta-7-avenasterol | 93.81 ± 0.02 |
| Total | 788.57 |
Among the different plant sterols, sitosterol has been one of the most intensively investigated. A high β-sitosterol content was found in the majority of vegetable oils, such as those extracted from olive, grape seed and sunflower seed oil (Feinberg et al., 1987). The present study revealed that β-sitosterol content in seed oil of E. elaterium was lower than that of its related family Citrullus lanatus (64%), but higher than that of C. colocynthis (16.95%) (Badifu, 1991; Talabani and Tofiq, 2012).The presence of phytosterols in food systems may bring nutritional and functional benefits (Ntanios, 2001). It thus seems interesting to test the possibility of incorporating E. elaterium seed oil into food and pharmaceutical products.
3.3 Anticancer activities
3.3.1 Cytotoxicity
Cytotoxicity was first assessed by the release of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), as a marker for cell membrane integrity after exposure to seed oil. Using the LDH assay, we found that a concentration up to 5 μg/mL of seed oil did not significantly induce detectable cytotoxicity on human colonic adenocarcinoma HT29 (Fig. 4a) and fibrosarcoma HT1080 (Fig. 4b) cell lines. Thus, E. Elaterium seed oil did not induce membrane damage after a short-term incubation mimicking the pre-incubation step. In the second time, long-term cell viability was evaluated by MTT assay. As displayed in Fig. 4c, the viability of HT29 and HT1080 cells incubated for 72 h was not affected by 5 μg/mL oil and only slightly affected by concentrations up to 25 μg/mL.
3.3.2 Seed oil of E. elaterium inhibits the proliferation of cancer cell lines
In order to know whether seed oil interferes with proliferation, we followed the growth of HT29 and HT1080 cells in the absence or in the presence of the oil. For both cell lines, the number of cells in the wells was reduced by the presence of the seed oil in culture medium. The proliferation of both human cell lines was dramatically decreased in the presence of 5 μg/mL of seed oil and completely abolished in the presence of 25 μg/mL, without being cytotoxic as we demonstrated using LDH and MTT assay. The inhibitory effect of tumour cell proliferation was dose-dependent with a half-maximal inhibition (IC50) of 4.86 μg/mL and 4.16 μg/mL for HT29 and HT1080 cell lines respectively (Fig. 5).Thus, oil clearly appears to be a potent inhibitor of tumour cell proliferation.
Our results show that seeds oil from E. Elaterium was found to be a rich source of polyunsaturated fatty acid, especially linoleic and punicic acids. A high ratio of polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acids (7.13) can have beneficial effects on cancer prevention and treatment (Grossmann et al., 2010; Rosa et al., 2012). Linoleic acid has been reported to have significant activity in inhibiting mammary carcinogenesis (Ip et al., 1997). It also suppresses the proliferation of human breast adenocarcinoma cells (MDA-MB468) in SCID mice (Visonneau et al., 1997). Punicic acid isolated from Punica granatum has been found to have various health benefits, including antiproliferative activities against breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231. Furthermore, it induces apoptosis in breast cancer cell lines (Grossmann et al., 2010). Many investigations have demonstrated that omega-6 (n-6) fatty acid inhibits growth of cancerous cells in vitro. E. elaterium was the only species in the Cucurbitaceae family characterized by the presence of punicic acid in seed oil. Thus E. elaterium can be considered as a promising source of plant-derived anticancer agents. E. elaterium seed oil was also characterized by the occurrence of monounsaturated fatty acids, such as oleic acid (18:1n-9), that play an active role in the prevention of human cancer. Oleic acid, the main monounsaturated fatty acid of olive oil, enhances the growth inhibitory effects of trastuzumab in breast cancer cell lines SK-Br3 and BT-474 (Menendez et al., 2005).
β-Sitosterol, the major phytosterol in E. elaterium seed oil, displays antiproliferative activity against colonic cancer cell lines COLO 320 DM (Baskar et al., 2010). Besides, γ-tocopherol shows a great ability to inhibit proliferation of prostate and lung cancer cells by interrupting the sphingolipid pathway synthesis (Jiang et al., 2004). This suggests that these natural compounds found as the major tocopherol forms in E. elaterium seed oil may have a high potential in the prevention of human cancer.
Previous studies have shown that vegetable oil is an ideal candidate for use in cancer prevention and treatment (Sotiroudis et al., 2003). There is also evidence that lin seed has anticancer effects, favourably affects breast cancer risk and decreases cell proliferation (Thompson et al., 2005). Experiments have demonstrated that virgin olive oil is capable to inhibit various key stages in the colon HT115 and HT29 carcinogenesis pathway (Gill et al., 2005). In the same way, polyphenols and sterols from argan oil exhibit strong antiproliferative activity against three human prostatic cell lines PC3, DU145, and LNCaP (Bennani et al., 2007).
Our data demonstrate that E. elaterium seed oil inhibits tumour cell proliferation of HT29 and HT1080 cell lines with a half-maximal inhibition (IC50) of 4.86 μg/mL and 4.16 μg/mL, respectively. These concentrations were close to IC50 values observed with E. elaterium freeze-dried extract (Bohlooli et al, 2012) against growth of human gastric carcinoma cell lines (2.5 μg/mL), but much lower than that reported in the case of human oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma cell lines (500 μg/mL). This antiproliferative activities have been attributed to cucurbitacins (Bernard and Olayinka, 2010). Thus, Attard and Cuschieri (2004) have previously reported that cucurbitacin E extracted from E. Elaterium exhibits a marked effect on proliferation of prostate adenocarcinoma, melanoma and breast carcinoma cell lines.
4 Conclusions
This study offers an overview of the chemical composition of the seed oil extracted from E. elaterium growing wild in Tunisia. It revealed that the oil is a rich source of many important nutrients. The major found fatty acid is linoleic acid. The phytosterol marker is β-sitosterol and γ-tocopherol is the major vitamin form. This composition may explain the potent anticancer activity, especially inhibition of colonic adenocarcinoma and fibrosarcoma human cancer cell lines proliferation. Thus E. elaterium seed oil could be used in developing new strategies for the prevention and treatment of human cancer.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Tunisian Ministry of High Education and Scientific Research (MESRS), the Institut National de Recherche et d’Analyse Physico-chimique (INRAP), Tunisia, and the Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale (INSERM), France. Authors would like to thank Professor S. BEN SAAD, botanist in the Faculty of Sciences of Tunisia for his contribution in the identification of plants. The authors thank Professor Khaoula Khwaldia biologist in INRAP for helpful discussions.
References
- Characterization and applications of oils extracted from canerium. Bioresour. Technol.. 1998;64:249-252.
- [Google Scholar]
- Flore de la Tunisia’ (Angiospermes- Dicotylédones Gamopétales. Imprimerie Officielle de la République Tunisienne; 1979.
- Methods 958.05. In: Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (sixteenth ed.). Washington, DC: Association of Official Analytical Chemists; 1999.
- [Google Scholar]
- Method Cc 13i-96. In: Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists’ Society. Champaign, USA: AOCS Press; 1998.
- [Google Scholar]
- Cytotoxicity of cucurbitacin E extracted from Ecballium elaterium and anticancer agents in vitro. J. Nat. Remedies. 2004;4:137-144.
- [Google Scholar]
- Unsaponifiable matter in oils from some species of cucurbitaceae. J. Food Compost. Anal.. 1991;4:360-365.
- [Google Scholar]
- Chempreventive potential of β-sitosterol in experimental colon cancer model an In vitro and In vivo study. BMC Complement Altern. Med.. 2010;10:1-10.
- [Google Scholar]
- Antiproliferative effect of polyphenols and sterols of virgin argan oil on human prostate cancer cell lines. Cancer Detect Prev.. 2007;31:64-69.
- [Google Scholar]
- Search for a novel antioxidant antiinflammatory/analgesic or anti-proliferative drug cucurbitacins hold the ace. J. Med. Plants Res.. 2010;4:2821-2826.
- [Google Scholar]
- Cytotoxic effect of freeze-dried extract of Ecballium elaterium fruit on gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS) and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (KYSE30) cell lines. J. Gastrointestinal Cancer. 2012;43:579-583.
- [Google Scholar]
- Les Plates Dans la Médecine Traditionnelle Tunisienne. Paris: Agence de coopération culturelle et technique; 1986.
- Characterization and utilization of Spanish Broom (Spartium junceum L.) seed oil. Ind. Crops Prod.. 2010;31:423-426.
- [Google Scholar]
- Cucurbitacin B inhibits STAT3 and the Raf/MEK/ERK pathway in leukemia cell line K562. Cancer Lett.. 2010;289:46-52.
- [Google Scholar]
- Characteristics and composition of different seed oils and flours. Food Chem.. 2004;74:47-54.
- [Google Scholar]
- Répertoire général des aliments. In: Tables de Composition des Corps Gras, Lavoisier-Tec and Doc. Paris: INRA Editions; 1986.
- [Google Scholar]
- Phytosterols: applications and recovery methods. Bioresour. Technol.. 2007;98:2335-2350.
- [Google Scholar]
- Effect of roasting on tocopherols of gourd seeds (Cucurbitapepo) Grasas Y Aceites. 2006;57:409-414.
- [Google Scholar]
- Potential anticancer effects of virgin olive oil phenols on colorectal carcinogenesis models in vitro. Int. J. Cancer. 2005;117:1-7.
- [Google Scholar]
- Cucurbitacins from Ecballium elaterium juice increase the binding of bilirubin and ibuprofen to albumin in human plasma. Chem. Biol. Interact.. 2007;169:53-62.
- [Google Scholar]
- Punicic acid is an ω-5 fatty acid capable of inhibiting breast cancer proliferation. Int. J. Oncol.. 2010;36:421-426.
- [Google Scholar]
- H2D NMR and distance geometry study of the folding of Ecballium elaterium, trypsin inhibitor, a member of the squash inhibitors family. Biochemistry. 1989;28:2392-2398.
- [Google Scholar]
- Retention of conjugated linoleic acid in the mammary gland is associated with tumor inhibition during the post-initiation phase of carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis. 1997;18:755-759.
- [Google Scholar]
- ISO, 1996. Animal and vegetable fats and oils – ISO 660: determination of acid value and acidity. ISO 3961: determination of iodine value. International Organisation for Standardisation.
- ISO, 1999. Animal and vegetable fats and oils – ISO 12228: détermination de la teneur en stérols individuels et totaux. Méthode par Chromatographie en Phase Gazeuse. International Organisation for Standardisation.
- ISO, 2002. Animal and vegetable fats and oils – ISO 3657: determination of saponification value. International Organisation for Standardisation.
- ISO, 2006. Animal and vegetable fats and oils – ISO 9936: determination of tocopherol and tocotrienol contents by high performance liquid chromatography. International Organisation for Standardisation.
- Γ-Tocopherol or combinations of vitamin E forms induce cell death in human prostate cancer cells by interrupting sphingolipid synthesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.. 2004;51:7825-17830.
- [Google Scholar]
- The constituents of Ecballium elaterium II. α-Elaterin. J. Am. Chem. Soc.. 1958;80:707.
- [Google Scholar]
- Contribution à Une Étude Ethnobotanique de la Flore Tunisienne. ProgrammeFlore et Végétation tunisienne: Ministère de l’Enseignement supérieur et de; 1983.
- Soluble L1CAM promotes breast cancer cell adhesion and migration in vitro, but not invasion. Cancer Cell Int.. 2010;10:1-10.
- [Google Scholar]
- Oleic acid, the main monounsaturated fatty acid of olive oil, suppresses Her-2/neu (erb B-2) expression and synergistically enhances the growth inhibitory effects of trastuzumab (Herceptine) in breast cancer cells with Her-2/neu oncogene amplification. Ann. Oncol.. 2005;16:359-371.
- [Google Scholar]
- Evaluation and characterisation of Citrulluscolocynthis (L) schrad seed oil: comparison with Helianthus annuus (sunflower) seed oil. Food Chem.. 2013;136:348-353.
- [Google Scholar]
- Natural products as sources of new drugs over the period 1981–2002. J. Nat. Prod.. 2003;66:1022-1037.
- [Google Scholar]
- Plant sterol-ester-enriched spreads as an example of a new functional food. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.. 2001;103:102-106.
- [Google Scholar]
- Physicochemical properties and bioactive compounds of selected seed oils. LWT – Food Sci. Technol.. 2009;42:1396-1403.
- [Google Scholar]
- Occurrence and characteristics of oils and fats. In: Gunstone F.D., Harwood J.L., Padley F.B., eds. The lipid handbook (2nd ed). London, England: Chapman and Hall; 1994. p. :47-223.
- [Google Scholar]
- Characterisation of fatty acids and bioactive compounds of kachnar (Bauhinia purpurea L.) seed oil. Food Chem.. 2006;98:359-365.
- [Google Scholar]
- Chemical composition and profile characterisation of pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima) seed oil. Ind. Crops Prod.. 2012;37:82-87.
- [Google Scholar]
- Chemical composition and effect on intestinal Caco-2 cell viability and lipid profile of fixed oil from Cynomorium coccineum L. Food Chem. Toxicol.. 2012;50:3799-3807.
- [Google Scholar]
- Pollinator biodiversity and floral resource use in Ecballium elaterium (Cucurbitaceae), a Mediterranean endemic. Apidologie. 2003;34:29-42.
- [Google Scholar]
- Lebectin and lebecetin, two C-type lectins from snake venom, inhibit α5β1 and αv-containing integrins. Matrix Biol.. 2007;26:306-313.
- [Google Scholar]
- Chemopreventive potential of minor components of olive oil against cancer. Ital J. Food Sci.. 2003;15:169-185.
- [Google Scholar]
- Oil and tocopherol content and composition of pumpkin seed oil in 12 cultivars. J. Agric. Food Chem.. 2007;55:4005-4013.
- [Google Scholar]
- Citrullus colocynthis as a bioavaible source of β-sitosterol, antihyperlipidimic effect in rabbits. Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants. 2012;2:536-539.
- [Google Scholar]
- Dietary flaxseed alters tumor biological markers in post menopausal breast cancer. Clin. Cancer Res.. 2005;11:3828-3835.
- [Google Scholar]
- Effect of aqueous extracts of Ecballium elaterium rich, in the rabbit model of rhinosinusitis. Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol.. 2006;70:515-518.
- [Google Scholar]
- Vitamins C and E, retinol, beta-carotene and dietary fibre in relation to breast cancer risk: a prospective cohort study. Br. J. Cancer. 1997;75:149-155.
- [Google Scholar]
- Conjugated linoleic acid suppresses the growth of human breast adenocarcinoma cells in SCID mice. Anticancer Res.. 1997;17:969-973.
- [Google Scholar]