Formation of Mn3O4 nanobelts through the solvothermal process and their photocatalytic property

Khalid Abdelazez Mohamed Ahmed; Kaixun Huang

doi:10.1016/j.arabjc.2014.08.014

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Original article

12 (

); 429-439

doi:

10.1016/j.arabjc.2014.08.014

Formation of Mn₃O₄ nanobelts through the solvothermal process and their photocatalytic property

Khalid Abdelazez Mohamed Ahmed^{^a,^b,⁎}, Kaixun Huang^{^c}

a Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Al-Neelain University, P.O. Box: 12702, Khartoum, Sudan

b Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Education, Taif University, P.O. Box: 888, Postal Code: 5700, Saudi Arabia

c School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, PR China

⁎Corresponding author at: Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Education, Taif University, P.O. Box: 888, Postal Code: 5700, Saudi Arabia. Tel.: +966 552639984. khalidgnad@hotmail.com (Khalid Abdelazez Mohamed Ahmed)

Received: 2013-9-24, Accepted: 2014-8-18, Published: 2014-03-01

Disclaimer:
This article was originally published by Elsevier and was migrated to Scientific Scholar after the change of Publisher.

Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.

Abstract

Hausmannite Mn₃O₄ nanobelts were synthesized from manganese acetate and potassium hydroxide precursors in the presence of melamine–ethanol–distill water via the reflux and solvothermal methods. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopes confirm the composition of the as-prepared product. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), selected area electron diffraction (SA-ED), high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) and N₂ adsorption-desorption isotherm results showed that the as-fabricated sample exhibits a nanosized belt-like crystal, single crystalline, tetragonal phase structure and high BET surface area. The effects of the reaction conditions such as melamine amount, solvent ratios and reaction time on the morphology of the products were studied. The band gap of the as-synthesized products was calculated via diffuse reflectance spectral analysis and their activity of catalytic oxidation was evaluated by degradation of diphenylthiocarbazone under visible-light irradiation. GC–MS instrument was used to monitor the temporal course of the catalytic reaction. The results showed that the degradation efficiency of diphenylthiocarbazone catalyzed by Mn₃O₄ nanobelts was higher than that which had been prepared in particle and sheet-like nanocrystals.

Keywords

Manganese oxide

Solvothermal

Nanobelts

Diphenylthiocarbazone

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1 Introduction

One-dimensional (1D) inorganic nanomaterials with various shapes and morphologies, such as nanotubes, nanowires, nanorods and nanobelts generally show enhanced physiochemical applications in various areas due to their high surface to size effects and reduced dimensionality not only have been attracting a great deal of research interest in recent years, but also they have been emerging as one of the most powerful and diverse classes of functional nanomaterials that are having a key impact on science and technology (Huang et al., 2001; Song et al., 2005; Comini et al., 2005; Mai et al., 2006; Fang et al., 2011a,b; Li et al., 2012; Peng et al., 2014 ). In particular, as one of the most important 1D-material structures quasi-one-dimensional nanobelts appear to have unique ability to combine a number of essential diagnostic, imaging, delivery and dosage properties and thus can be functionalized accordingly (Pan et al., 2001; Mo et al., 2002; Wang, 2004; Yu et al., 2008; Ahmad et al., 2011 ). Through electrical characterization, the belt-like morphology was also regarded sensitive to oxygen and environmental polluting species, like CO and NO₂ as well as ethanol for breath analyzers and food control applications due to quasi-one-dimensional structurally controlled nanomaterial with well-defined chemical composition, crystallographic structure and surfaces area (Comini et al., 2005).

One of the key concepts of material chemistry is that the properties of a material depend not only on its chemical composition but also on the method used for its preparation (Williams et al., 1984; Ahmadi et al., 1996; Xia et al., 2003; Xiao et al., 2004 ). With regard to Mn₃O₄ material properties, aside from their chemical composition, both nanostructures inclusive of morphology and particle size distribution play an important role for improving the surface area and reaction activity (Song et al., 2013). In order to prepare one-dimensional Mn₃O₄ nanomaterials with favorable morphology, small particle size and uniform particle size distribution such as nanorods, nanowires, nanofibers and nanotubes, various methods were utilized, including oxidation of manganese chloride by sodium hydroxide (Wang et al., 2008), solid-state decomposition of exfoliated MnO₂ nanosheets (Lee and Jung, 2012), soft chemistry templating process using a block copolymer(Du et al., 2008; Tan et al., 2011), electrospined technique (Shao et al., 2004) and hydrogen reduction of β-MnO₂ nanotubes under a H₂/Ar atmosphere (Bai et al., 2013). However, the exploration of microemulsion route for the synthesis Mn₃O₄ nanocrystals was recently attempted for preparing a poor phase of belt-like morphology (Wang et al., 2003).

The treatment of environmental pollution has become one of the most critical issues in the world. Despite the progress made in the study of semiconductor photocatalysis, it is still a challenge to obtain photocatalysts with high activity through relatively simple fabrication processes (Han et al., 2014). Until now, many kinds of advanced oxidation technologies, such as photocatalysis, wet-oxidation and catalytic ozonation were previously developed to degrade the pollution environments (Dong et al., 2009). Among different metal oxides, Mn₃O₄ materials were employed as catalyst for oxidation of methane and carbon monoxide, selective reduction of nitrobenzene, combustion of organic compounds; limitation of NO_x emission and volatile organic compounds from waste gases, decolorization of methylene blue and procion red dyes from the waste-water (Zwinkels et al., 1993; Shen et al., 1993; Grootendorst et al., 1995; Armstrong and Bruce, 1996; Baldi et al., 1998; Stobhe et al., 1999; Chowdhury et al., 2009 ). Therefore, besides catalytic activity, it also acts as an electrocatalyst for triiodide reduction and novel supercapacitor design performance for electrochemical energy storage (Zhang et al., 2014; Li et al., 2014).

Herein, in this paper, we evaluate the reflux and solvothermal methods for the synthesis of Mn₃O₄ nanobelts. The effects of reaction time, melamine and solvent ratio on the formation of final product were estimated. The degradation of diphenylthiocarbazone was investigated by Mn₃O₄ nanobelts based on oxygen pumping and visible light irradiation. Both UV/vis and GC/MS were employed to monitor the temporal course of catalytic reaction.

2 Experimental section

Mn(acetate)₂·H₂O was obtained from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., melamine was received from Sinphar Chemical Reagent Co., China. All other chemicals in this work were of analytical grade and used without any further treatment. In a typical synthesis, Mn(CH₃COO)₂·H₂O (0.7 mmol), melamine (1 mmol) and ethanol:water (70:30%) were stirred for several minutes, and then the mixture was mixed dropwise by adding KOH (0.08 mmol) under magnetic stirring for few minutes. Afterward, the mixture was placed into a round-bottom flask, rigged with condenser and refluxed at 80 °C for 2 h. The obtained solution was transferred into a 40 ml teflon-lined stainless-steel autoclave and heated to 200 °C for 10 h. The autoclave was cooled to room temperature naturally, and the brown precipitated powders were separated by centrifugation, washed with anhydrous ethanol several times, dried in a vacuum at 50 °C for 12 h, collected for characterization.

2.1

2.1 Characterization

The crystal phase of product was examined on an X-ray diffractometer (Panalytical X’Pert Pro; Netherlands) using a Cu Ka target (λ = 1.5418 Å). A FT-IR spectrum was obtained on an EQUINOX55 Bruker FT spectrometer employing a KBr beam splitter. The morphologies and nanostructures of the synthesized products were characterized using a field emission scanning electron microscopy (FEI Sirion 200, Netherlands), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images collected using a Tecnai G²20, Netherlands and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) images were carryout on a JEM-2010 FEF TEM. The surface area and pore size of the product were examined by N₂ isotherms on ASAP 2020 (Micromeritics Co., USA) at liquid nitrogen temperature. A UV–vis spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, model No. 2450) was employed to study the optical properties. All the measurements were carried out at room temperature.

2.2

2.2 Catalytic instrumentation

The degradation of diphenylthiocarbazone process was adopted as the probe molecule to evaluate the photocatalytic activity of the as-papered samples. 200 mL of diphenylthiocarbazone (0.2 g/L) solution and 0.02 mmol of the as-prepared catalyst were placed in a three neck glass reactor (250 mL) equipped with a reflux condenser under air bubbling, magnetic stirring and visible light (mercury lamp, GYZ220–230 V, 250 W, Philips Electronics, with a cutoff filter λ > 400 nm) at 60–70 °C. Air as oxygen source was pumped by an air pump. The pH values were controlled by the use of 10% HCl. During the irradiation, 5–6 mL aliquots were sampled at given time intervals. After removing the catalytic powder, the absorbances of the diphenylthiocarbazone solution were analyzed by using a UV–vis spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, model No. 2450). The degree of degradation was calculated from this relation: $D % = \frac{A_{o} - A_{t} \times 100 %}{A_{o}}$

2.3

2.3 GC–MS analysis

After reaction, the catalytic powder was removed through filter paper and centrifuged to analysis by GC–MS spectrum with an Agilent 7890A/5975C, equipped with a HP-5-MS capillary column 30 m × 250 μm × 0.25 μm film thickness using a stationary phase of 5% phenyl-methyl poly siloxane. The injector temperature was maintained at 250 °C. For liquid injections (1 μL) the apparatus was run in split mode (1:5) at the flow rate of 3 ml/min.

3 Results and discussion

3.1

3.1 Structure and morphology

XRD patterns of the as-fabricated samples by solvothermal process in different amounts of 0, 1 and 2 mmol melamine at 200 °C for 10 h were observed. XRD pattern of the as-obtained Mn₃O₄ nanobelts is shown in Fig. 1(a), reveals that all the diffraction peaks can be exclusively indexed as the tetragonal phase structured Mn₃O₄ with a lattice constant of a = 5.76 Å and c = 9.47 Å and space group of I41/amd; which is in good agreement with the standard data JCPDS card No. 24-0734 (Fig. 1(d)). As presented in Fig. 1(b), the XRD pattern of Mn₃O₄ particles was prepared by solvothermal approach in the absence of melamine. The diffraction peaks could be attributed to the tetragonal of Mn₃O₄ hausmannite (JCPDS card No. 24-0734). Fig. 1(c) is a typical XRD spectrum of as-synthesized sheet- like Mn₃O₄ nanocrystals by melamine amount of 2 mmol, planed all diffraction profiling the same card number of Mn₃O₄ nanobelts and nanoparticles.

(a) XRD patterns of Mn3O4 nanostructures (a) nanobelts, (b) nanosheets, (c) nanoparticles and (d) the standard data from JCPDS card No. 024-0734.

The chemical composition of Mn₃O₄ nanobelts was also examined by FTIR measurements. Fig. 2 shows the characteristic absorption bands at 412.29, 530.83, 638.81 and 726.41 cm⁻¹ are assigned the stretching modes between the MnO stretching modes of tetrahedral and octahedral sites (Al Sagheer et al., 1999; Wang et al., 2002). Analogously, there were interactions between organic molecules and nanobelts. The bands at 1433.23 and 1556.3 cm⁻¹ could be described to the C–H bending vibrations and absorption at 1100.52 cm⁻¹ matches the C–N stretching. The broad bands centered at 1630.45, 3421.52 and 2925.7 cm⁻¹ are assigned to the O–H stretching and bending modes of water.

FT-IR spectrum of Mn3O4 nanobelts by solvothermal process at 200 °C for 10 h.

Specific surface area of the as-prepared samples was characterized by nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherm measurements. Fig. 3 shows the nitrogen sorption isotherms curves of pure Mn₃O₄ nanostructures. It can be observed from figure, the nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms of the samples are of type IV (Brunauer–Deming–Deming–Teller (BDDT) classification) with two hysteresis loops (Sing et al., 1985). BET surface area of Mn₃O₄ nanobelts is 42.13 m²/g, which is more than 2.2 and 8.4 times of that of Mn₃O₄ nanosheets and Mn₃O₄ nanoparticles.

N2 adsorption–desorption curve of Mn3O4 nanobelts, nanosheets and nanoparticles.

The evolution of as-prepared product morphology upon reflux and solvothermal methods was examined by FE-SEM analysis. As shown in Figs. 4(a) and (b), the precursor sample consists of uniform shape, smooth and flat surfaces nanobelts with a diameter of 100–150 nm and lengths of several micrometers. More detailed studies of the as-prepared sample were examined by TEM. As shown in Fig. 4(c), each product is composed of nanobelts. The dimension of the nanobelts is in good agreement with the estimated value from the FE-SEM results. The corresponding SA-ED pattern of an individual Mn₃O₄ nanobelt (insert a Fig. 4(c)) shows the single-crystalline structure. As presented in Fig. 4(d), the formation of single-crystalline 1D-nanobelts is evidenced from the observation of well-aligned lattice lines in the HR-TEM images. The interplanar distance calculated from the lattice fringes of sample is 0.493 nm, which corresponds to the {1 0 1} plane of tetragonal Mn₃O₄.

(a) Low- (b) and high-magnification SEM images, (c) TEM images (insert a SE-ED) and (d) HR-TEM images of Mn3O4 nanobelts prepared by solvothermal process at 200 °C for 10 h.

To shed light on the formation process of Mn₃O₄ nanobelt, several experimental tests were carried out under different conditions and the intermediate products were inspected by FE-SEM image. From synthesis system it is observed that, the melamine ligand has great effects on the morphology of the final nanobelt. When melamine was canceled under the same conditions, the morphology of the final nanobelts was changed and the smaller nanoparticles with diameter of 40–70 nm were obtained(Fig. 5(a)). When the dosage of melamine was varied from 1 to 2 mmol, the sheet-like microstructures with length of 6 μm and width of 1.5 μm are observed (Fig. 5(b)). Besides the above material, the impacts of solvent ratio and reaction time on Mn₃O₄ nanobelts are also considered. Fig. 5(c) displays the SEM images of the as-grown Mn₃O₄ microrods synthesized by altering ethanol–water volume percentage from 70:30 to 90:10. The width average size of microrods is about 1.5 μm and length is around 10 μm. This morphology not only can be obtained by a changing solvent approach, but also that the growth mechanism can be investigated with other microcrystals by extending the reaction time from 10 to 20 h (Fig. 5(d). According to experimental data, the chemical reactions to obtain as synthesized nanobelts may be formulated as follows: $\begin{matrix} Mn {({CH}_{3} COO)}_{2} + 2 KOH \to Mn {(OH)}_{2} + 2 {CH}_{3} COOK \\ {Mn}^{+ 2} + {nC}_{3} N_{6} H_{6} \leftrightarrow Mn {(C_{3} N_{6} H_{6})}_{n}^{2 +} (n = 1 - 4) \\ 6 {Mn}^{+ 2} + O_{2} + 12 {OH}^{-} \to 2 {Mn}_{3} O_{4} + H_{2} O \end{matrix}$ Coordination compound of manganese melaminate might play a role in controlling not only release velocity of Mn²⁺ions, but also growth direction of Mn₃O₄ nanobelts. Recently, the effects of some organic capping ligand on formation of Sb₂O₃, t-Se Fe₃O₄, MoO₃, β-Ga₂O₃ and In₂O₃ nanobelts were reported (Zhang et al., 2004; Ma et al., 2005; Li et al., 2009; Hassan et al., 2010; Abdullah et al., 2013; Amirhoseiny et al., 2013 ). We believe that excessive melamine as the ligands were adsorbed on surfaces of nanobelts and played a role of capping agent, suppressing the growth rate of one dimension. The building block of the Mn₃O₄ nanobelt, grows along {1 0 1}, with side surfaces prepared from partial Mn⁺² oxidation intoMn⁺³due to limited existence of oxygen in the autoclave under such basic condition.

FE-SEM images of products prepared at 200oC (a) without melamine; (b) 2 mmol melamine; (c) water:ethanol volume ratio (10:90 (v/v)) and (d) 1 mmol melamine for 20 h.

3.2

3.2 Catalytic performing

The catalytic activity of Mn₃O₄ nanobelts was evaluated by degrading diphenylthiocarbazone under visible light irradiation at 60–70 °C. Whereas adjustment of pH to 3–4. Two main characteristic absorption bands of dye are displayed by UV–vis spectrum (Fig. 6). One absorbance peak at 600 nm reveals n → π^∗ transition of C⚌N, N⚌N, C⚌S groups are contributed to color dye solution and is always used to monitor the decolorization of diphenylthiocarbazone dye. The peak absorbed at 259 nm displays the π → π^∗ transition in aromatic ring group representing aromatic content of dye. The decrease in both absorbance peaks during catalytic process with irradiation times, suggested that the diphenylthiocarbazone was gradually reduced to minor species.

(a) UV–vis spectra of photodegradation of diphenylthiocarbazone by Mn3O4 nanobelts.

Moreover, the degradation percentages of diphenylthiocarbazone by Mn₃O₄ nanobelts catalyst or in the absence of catalyst or oxygen air bubbles have presented in Fig. 7(a). Without catalysts, the dye is hardly degraded even under light irradiation and air bubbles for 160 min (curves I). In contrast, it undergoes little or no breakdown of diphenylthiocarbazone dye within Mn₃O₄ nanobelts employees and air pumping privation (curves II). This result suggests the surface area of catalyst and O₂ air are necessary for removal of dye from wastewater, but the oxygen air bubble rate has not significant effect on the degradation process. However, the high value of the decomposition rate of the dye ∼99% can be obtained by Mn₃O₄ nanobelts catalyst powder and O₂ air pumping (curve (III). It can also compare of this value other catalytic degradation powders by Mn₃O₄ sheet-like or Mn₃O₄ nanoparticles (Fig. 7(b)), observably, the degradation of dye by Mn₃O₄ nanobelts is best. The reaction of degradation diphenylthiocarbazone rate can be considered pseudo first order. Fig. 7(c) illustrates the plot of log (A_o/A_t) versus times (R² = 0.9974). The rate constant may be evaluated as: [k = 2.303log (A_o/A_t)/t]; from this plot, the rate constant (k) is about 1.544 × 10⁻² min. This value is higher than the catalytic reaction by sheet-like Mn₃O₄ nanocrystals or Mn₃O₄ nanoparticles. On the other hand, the reuse stability of Mn₃O₄ nanobelts catalyst is presented in Fig. 7(d). The diphenylthiocarbazone degradation activity of four reuses was 99.1%, 86.5%, 76.3% and 66.8%, after 150 min of reaction and at 70 °C, respectively. The result reveals the catalytic efficiency of the catalyst has a slight decrease after each cycle. The reason may be partly due to inescapable loss during the recovery of the catalyst and lacking some of its adsorption ability.

(a) The degradation percentage of diphenylthiocarbazone with (I) O2, (II) Mn3O4 nanobelts and (III) O2 + Mn3O4 nanobelts; (b) the degradation percentage of diphenylthiocarbazone catalyzed by Mn3O4 nanostructures; (c) the rate of degradation diphenylthiocarbazone catalyzed by Mn3O4 nanostructures; (d) the stability of catalyst after following for four times under visible-light irradiation.

3.3

3.3 Degradation mechanism

Fig. 8(a) shows the diffused reflectance spectra of Mn₃O₄ samples. From the results in figure, one can observed that the absorption edges of Mn₃O₄ nanobelts, Mn₃O₄ sheet-like and Mn₃O₄ nanoparticles are about 560, 625 and 650 nm, respectively. The band gap (Eg) of the samples can be calculated from the following equation: [Eg_(eV) = 1420/λ_(nm)] (Yang et al., 2010). From this relation, the band gap energies of Mn₃O₄ nanobelts, Mn₃O₄ sheet-like and Mn₃O₄ nanoparticles are about 2.22, 1.98 and 1.91 eV, respectively. It was recently reported that the large band gap as an important in ban the electron–hole recombination and ultimately enhances the photocatalytic efficacy. The increase in band gap led to efficient charge separation and it reduced the rate of recombination of the electro-hole pair and enhanced the rapid electron transfer at the solid–liquid interface (Kumaresan et al., 2010). Similar to our present results, the photocatalytic activity of Mn₃O₄ nanobelts has high absorbance of light in the visible region and high optical band gap absorption, indicating applicability as an absorbing of this material than other Mn₃O₄ sheet-like and Mn₃O₄ nanoparticles. Due to increase in the band gap energy and spinal structure with the Mn²⁺ cations in the tetrahedral sites and the Mn³⁺ cations in the octahedral sites, Mn₁²⁺[Mn₂³⁺]O₄²⁻ (Fig. 9) and being derived from the cubic spinel through a strong Jahn–Teller distortion (Tackett et al., 2007; Raj et al., 2010; Rohani and Entezari, 2010 ), Mn₃O₄ nanobelts exhibited enhanced photocatalytic activity. The role of light irradiation in the catalytic degradation of diphenyl-thiocarbazone over Mn₃O₄ nanobelts is shown in Fig. 8(b). The degradation efficiency of catalyst is considerably higher in the same condition with light irradiation than that of the degradation of dye in absence of light.

(a) The diffuse reflectance spectrum of the as-prepared materials Mn3O4 nanobelts (NB), Mn3O4nanosheets (NS) and Mn3O4nanoparticles (NP); (b) The degradation efficiency of diphenylthio-carbazone by Mn3O4 nanobelts with and without light irradiation.

(a) Crystal Maker Demo displays an anisotropic structure of Mn3O4 nanobelts and (b) The black spheres are tetrahedrally coordinated Mn2+on the A site and the cyan spheres are the octahedrally coordinated Mn3+on the B site. Orange spheres are O.

The evaluation of the degradation effectiveness of diphenylthiocarbazone catalyzed by Mn₃O₄ nanobelts was carried out through GC–MS spectroscopy. The main degradation compounds were identified by MS (Fig. 10). Based on the identified byproducts, the reaction pathways of diphenyl-thiocarbazone degradation were proposed, as postulated in Fig. 11. Due to the above results and previous reports in refers (Rauf and Ashraf, 2009; Rhadfi et al., 2010; Ahmed et al., 2011 ), the large number of main reactive oxygen species including h⁺, •O₂⁻ and •OH involved in photocatalytic process may be responsible for degradation dye. There are no useful methods for detecting hydroxyl radicals. The reason is the high reactivity of these radicals which will react in terephthalic acid and it has shown to be impossible to introduce sufficient concentrations of an indicator into cells to react preferentially with hydroxyl radicals. So as per our observation, the photo-holes are certainly not concerned by the initial step since the reactant is cationic and not an electron donor. By contrast, the free radical oxygenations can attack the C⚌S and N⚌N functional group in diphenylthiocarbazone, which is probably adsorbed perpendicularly to the surface down to the final products of CO₂, SO₄²⁻, NH₄⁺ and NO₃⁻ (tested the end of catalytic reaction by Ba(OH)₂ and glass rod moistened of HCl).

The GC and MS spectra of degradation products of diphenylthio-carbazone with Mn3O4 nanobelts and O2 under light irradiation; (a) GC spectrum of degradation products; (b–d) Mass-specters of benzaldehyde, 4-tert-butylbenzoic acid and N-benzylbenzamide.

Photocatalytic degradation pathway of diphenylthiocarbazone dye by Mn3O4 nanobelts, under air pumping and visible light irradiation.

4 Conclusions

In conclusion, we synthesized Mn₃O₄ nanostructure with various morphologies such as nanobelt nanosheets and nanoparticles by reflux and solvothermal routes. Melamine amounts, solvent ratios and reaction time played important role in the formation of the as-prepared products. The optical studies showed direct band gap energy of 19.1–2.21 eV. Due to energy band gap and surface area, the Mn₃O₄ nanobelts exhibited better catalytic activity of diphenylthiocarbazone degradation than Mn₃O₄ nanosheets and nanoparticles. The decomposition reaction of dye follows first order kinetics and as analyzed by GC–MS and shows the dye solution was degraded into small species. All results suggest the strong O₂-activating ability of Mn₃O₄ nanobelts showed promising applications in the oxidative degradation of diphenylthiocarbazone under visible-light irradiation.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Taif University, Al-Neelain University and faculty from the Analysis and Test Center of Huazhong University of Science and Technology for the technical assistance on characterization. This research was supported by MOST 973 program (Project No. 2006CB705606a).

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Introduction

Experimental section

Characterization
Catalytic instrumentation
GC–MS analysis

Results and discussion

Structure and morphology
Catalytic performing
Degradation mechanism

Conclusions

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[Google Scholar]

[30] Raj M.E.A., Victoria G.S., Bena J.V., Ravidhas C., Wollschler J., Suendorf M., Neumann M., Jayachandran M., Sanjeeviraja C., . XRD and XPS characterization of mixed valence Mn₃O₄ hausmannite thin films prepared by chemical spray pyrolysis technique. Appl. Surf. Sci.. 2010;256:2920-2926.
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[Google Scholar]

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[Google Scholar]

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[Google Scholar]

[45] Wang Z.L., . Functional oxide nanobelts: materials, properties and potential applications in nanosystems and biotechnology. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem.. 2004;55:159-255.
[Google Scholar]

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[49] Yang X., Ma F., Xu L., Guo Y., Guo Y., Huo M., . Mixed phase titania nanocomposites codoped with metallic silver and vanadium oxide: new visible/UV-light-driven photocatalyst for dye degradation. J. Hazard. Mater.. 2010;175:429-438.
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[Google Scholar]

[51] Zhang Y., Li G., Zhang J., Zhang L., . Shape-controlled growth of one-dimensional Sb₂O₃ nanomaterials. Nanotechnology. 2004;15:762-765.
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[52] Zhang Q., Liu Y., Duan Y., Fu N., Liu Q., Fang Y., Sun Q., Lin Y., . Mn₃O₄/graphene composite as counter electrode in dye-sensitized solar. RSC Adv.. 2014;4:15091-15097.
[Google Scholar]

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