Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and other potential applications of Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. (Sapotaceae): A review

Olusesan Ojo; Micheal H.K. Kengne; Marthe C. Fotsing; Edwin M. Mmutlane; Derek T. Ndinteh

doi:10.1016/j.arabjc.2021.103213

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Review article

2021

:14;

202107

doi:

10.1016/j.arabjc.2021.103213

Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and other potential applications of Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. (Sapotaceae): A review

Olusesan Ojo^{^a,⁎}, Micheal H.K. Kengne^{^b}, Marthe C. Fotsing^{^a}, Edwin M. Mmutlane^{^b}, Derek T. Ndinteh^{^a,^c,⁎}

a Drug Discovery and Smart Molecules Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa

b Research Centre for Synthesis and Catalysis, Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Johannesburg, Kingsway Campus, Auckland Park, P.O. Box 524, Johannesburg, South Africa

c Centre for Natural Product Research (CNPR), Chemical Sciences Department, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa

⁎Corresponding authors at: Drug Discovery and Smart Molecules Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa (D.T. Ndinteh). ojoolusesan33@gmail.com (Olusesan Ojo), dndinteh@uj.ac.za (Derek T. Ndinteh)

Received: 2021-3-23, Accepted: 2021-5-11,

Disclaimer:
This article was originally published by Elsevier and was migrated to Scientific Scholar after the change of Publisher.

Abstract

Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. is a multipurpose medicinal plant of the family Sapotaceae, and it has been widely used usually in the clinical traditional medicine as remedy for a wide range of diseases for several decades. In addition, the plant has also found applications in confectionery, cosmetics and soaps, and pharmaceuticals both locally and internationally. V. paradoxa, which has been identified with >150 phytoconstituents, is rich in oleanane-type triterpene acids and glycosides, such as paradoxosides A-E, tieghemelin A, parkiosides A-C, bassic acid, as well as flavonoids such as quercetin and catechin-type compounds. The extracts and the active constituents of V. paradoxa have been investigated for various pharmacological activities, including but not limited to anticancer, melanogenesis-inhibitory, antibacterial, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhoeal, and antifungal activities. Additionally, V. paradoxa has also been utilized in nanoparticles (NPs) synthesis. These NPs among other things have shown significant antinociceptive and antiedematogenic activities as well as environmental friendly adsorptive properties for the removal of pollutants from pharmaceutical effluents. Overall, this review comprehensively examines the traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, clinical studies, and nanoparticles synthesized from V. paradoxa and their applications.

Keywords

Vitellaria paradoxa

Sapotaceae

African traditional medicine

Pharmacological activities

Phytoconstituents

Nanoparticles

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COX-2: cyclooxygenase-2
EO: essential oils
MIC: minimum inhibitory concentration
BCG: bacillus calmette–guérin
MRSA: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
IC₅₀: half maximal inhibitory concentrations
MFC: minimum fungicidal concentrations
MDA: malondialdehyde
DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl
ABTS: 2,20-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)
TYRP-1 & -2: tyrosinase-related protein-1 & -2
α‐MSH: α‐melanocyte‐stimulating hormone
ROS: reactive oxygen species
GC–MS: gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy
LD₅₀: half-maximal lethal concentrations
MITF: microphthalmia-associated transcription factor
TPA: 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate
EBV-EA: Epstein-Barr virus early antigen
MTT: (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide
iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase
IL: interleukins
TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α
LPS: lipopolysaccharide
PBP2: Penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2)
h-TNAP: Human tissue nonspecific alkaline phosphatase
NPs: Nanoparticles
XTT = 2: 3-bis[2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl]-2H-tetrazolium5-carboxyanilide inner salt
HRSEM: High-resolution scanning electron microscopy
FT-IR: Fourier transformed infra-red
EDX: electron diffraction X-ray
XRD: X-ray diffraction
ELS: electrophoretic light scattering
DSC: differential scanning calorimetry
AFM: atomic force microscopy
DLS: dynamic light scattering

1 Introduction

Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. is a multipurpose medicinal plant of the family Sapotaceae (Table 1). The species is indigenous to sub-Saharan Africa, and usually found in semi-arid to arid regions of the humid forest zones (Akihisa et al., 2011; Di Vincenzo et al., 2005; Warra, 2011 ). V. paradoxa, which is commonly called Shea butter tree in English, is locally known as “Ori” (Yoruba, Nigeria), “Kadanya” (Hausa, Nigeria), “Lulu” (Arabic), “Taãnga” (Burkina Faso), “Karé” (Pular, Guinea), “karate” (French), “Tango” (Honduras) and “Somou/Yokuti” (Togo) (Félix et al., 2018; Soladoye et al., 1989). As a medicinal plant, V. paradoxa has a long history of preventing and curing diseases and infections in the clinical traditional medicine in sub-Saharan Africa for many decades (Soro et al., 2011; Tella, 1979). Its leaves, stems, roots, barks, fruits, oils, and seeds can be utilized as medicines with different therapeutic effects. In addition, V. paradoxa is also utilized commercially as a primary ingredient in confectionery, cosmetics, soaps, pharmaceuticals, and green chemistry products (Eneh, 2010; Maranz et al., 2004; Moldovan et al., 2021 ).

Table 1 Taxonomic classification of Vitellaria paradoxa Geartn. (TCLP, 2018).

Taxonomy
Kingdom	Plantae
Division	Magnoliophyta
Class	Magnoliopsida
Order	Ebenales
Family	Sapotaceae
Genus	Vitellaria C. F. Geartn.
Species	Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Geartn. – Shea butter

TCLP; The Catalogue of Life Partnership.

In recent years, modern pharmacological studies have shown that the extracts of V. paradoxa exhibited various pharmacological activities (Da et al., 2019; Eyong et al., 2018; Ndukwe et al., 2007a; Talla et al., 2016; Verma et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2018 ). Interestingly, many of these biological activities are in support of those of clinical uses of V. paradoxa in the African traditional medicine (Karou et al., 2011; Ogbole and Ajaiyeoba, 2010; Segun et al., 2018 ). Because of notable pharmacological effects and nutritional values, several researchers have extensively and diffusely investigated, and isolated the active constituents of kernel, stem-bark, root, leaves, and nutshells of V. paradoxa. In the meantime, there is no known available systematic review that synthesizes the current knowledge on V. paradoxa. With the exception of limited reviews on nutritional compositions of V. paradoxa by Honfo et al. (2014), and Maanikuu and Peker (2017), we are not aware of any study that has extensively reviewed the phytochemical and pharmacological potential of this plant species worldwide.

This present work aimed to comprehensively examine the existing published scientific literature about the botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and clinical applications of V. paradoxa extracts as well as its active constituents in recent years. Additionally, nanoparticles (NPs) synthesis obtained from V. paradoxa and their applications have also been reviewed, with the goal of providing a complete material for researchers to further discover its therapeutic values.

2 Review methodology

In this review, we retrieved reports from the databases of Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com/), Online Wiley library (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/), ScienceDirect (https://www.sciencedirect.com/), Scopus (https://www.scopus.com/), Springer (https://www.springer.com/gp) and PubMed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/) to gather extensive scientific evidence on the botanical description, traditional uses, phytochemical constituents, pharmacological properties, clinical studies, toxicology and nanoparticles of Vitellaria paradoxa. Various combinations of key words used during the literature search include: “Vitellaria paradoxa” and “its traditional uses”, “phytochemistry”, “biological activity”, “toxicology”, “isolated compounds”, and “ethnomedicinal uses”. The literature search was conducted from inception to February 2021. Only published data resulting from different databases search were thoroughly screened and relevant published papers were collated using EndNote (https://endnote.com/), a web-based reference manager. Information gathered was analyzed and summarized in table forms where appropriate.

3 Botanical description of V. paradoxa

V. paradoxa, synonymous to Butyrospermum parkii (G. Don) Kotschy or Butyrospermum paradoxum (C. F. Gaertn.) Hepper, is a deciduous woody plant with a spreading crown. The tree grows about 25 m in height and thrives under plenty of sunlight within the daily temperature range of 24 – 38 °C. Also, the plant grows optimally on sandy soils with good humus cover, but can also grow on other types of soil (Hall et al., 1996). The leaves, which are usually oblong, are clustered at the ends of branches (Fig. 1). Its bark is corky. It has a taproot up to 1 m, and occasionally 2 m long. Its rooting system is firmly grounded, and this provides support and stability to withstand an extended period of dry seasons and drought. The plant starts flowering between the ages of 10–25 years. Its flowers are white, and they are usually clustered at the end of the shoots. Fruiting, which normally occurs during the dry season, begins at the ages of 10–15 years after planting. However, full production does not occur until 20–30 years. The fruits are green in colour, flat and round, containing about four shiny brown seeds (Glèlè Kakaï et al., 2011; Naughton et al., 2015; Pritchard et al., 2004 ) (http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id = Vitellaria + paradoxa). Morphologically, two forms of V. paradoxa are identified at the sub-species level, namely sub-species (ssp.) paradoxa (common in Western Africa), and ssp. nilotica (predominant in Eastern Africa), and are widely distributed across sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-species paradoxa has a wider range of precipitation about 600–1400 mm/annual than sub-species nilotica (900–1400 mm/annual). Similarly, V. paradoxa ssp. paradoxa grows at lower elevation (100–600 m) than ssp. nilotica (650–1600 m). The eastern subspecies flowers are larger and have thick ferrugineous indumentum on the flower stalk than the western individuals. Outer sepals of the eastern type have a wooly appearance due to their hairy nature (Allal et al., 2013; Hall et al., 1996; Hemsley, 1961 ).

Photograph of Vitellaria paradoxa leaves with the fruits (Photo by one of the authors, O.O).

4 Traditional clinical uses of V. paradoxa

Most African states depend primarily on medicinal plants for the treatment of diseases and infections. V. paradoxa is a highly regarded source of medicine in traditional medicine practice in Africa, and has gained acceptability among the rural dwellers for combating infections and diseases. Table 2 summarizes the traditional uses of V. paradoxa, along with the part(s) used among some African nations. Different parts of V. paradoxa have been documented for treating one disease or the other. For example, in Nigeria, the seed oil decoction is used for curing cough and tuberculosis (Ariyo et al., 2020; Ogbole and Ajaiyeoba, 2010), while the bark decoction is used for the treatment of diarrhoea and hypertension in Benin (Dossou-Yovo et al., 2014; Lagnika et al., 2016). It is reported that some traditional healers in Côte d'Ivoire utilized the bark to ease labour pain and child delivery (Iwu, 2014). Malaria, a deadly infectious disease, is endemic to sub-Sahara Africa, and many people from Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali and Guinea rely heavily on V. paradoxa as herbal remedy (Bekoe et al., 2020; Jansen et al., 2010; Keïta et al., 2020; Nadembega et al., 2011; Traore et al., 2013 ). These herbal remedies are usually involved some kinds of plant preparations, such as decoction, cream, charred, maceration, and infusion, and they may comprise a plant part or a whole plant (Iwu, 2014). Most traditional clinical uses of V. paradoxa, as illustrated in Table 2, have been reported from the Western Africa. A number of speculations could be responsible for this. First, this may be partly due to the richness of traditional medicine practice in Western African countries, especially in Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Ghana. Second, many of the V. paradoxa species are predominantly distributed in Western African nations compared to the Eastern Africa. This would give the rural dwellers in the Western African nations quick and easy access to the plant species.

Table 2 Traditional uses of Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea butter tree) in Africa.

Country	Part(s) used/preparation	Traditional usage	References
Nigeria	Bark, oil	Cancer and tumor	(Abubakar et al., 2020; Segun et al., 2018)
	Stem-bark, seed nuts	Diarrhoea and hemorrhoids	(Mustapha, 2014; Sharaibi and Osuntogun, 2017)
	Oil/decoction	Tuberculosis and cough	(Ariyo et al., 2020; Ogbole and Ajaiyeoba, 2010)
	Leaf	Headache	(Iwu, 2014)
	Stem	Skin diseases, gastric ulcers	(Adebayo-Tayo et al., 2010; Akinwumi and Sonibare, 2019)
	Seeds	Antimicrobial agent, coolant	(Sonibare and Abegunde, 2012)
	Leaf, fruit, bark	Rash, skin and wound infections, chicken pox	(Abubakar et al., 2017; Soladoye et al., 1989)
	Fruits, bark	Swollen pain, toothache, rheumatism	(Ampitan, 2013; Ichoron et al., 2019)
Burkina Faso	Leaf/Decoction	Malaria, fever	(Jansen et al., 2010; Nadembega et al., 2011)
	Fruits/Charred	Diarrhoea, obesity	(Nadembega et al., 2011; Pare et al., 2016)
	Root/Cream	Hemorrhoids	(Nadembega et al., 2011)
	Stem-bark	Stomach ache, mental disorders, liver disorders, lung disorders, heart disorders, throat sore, malnutrition, eyes diseases, headache, wound, navel pain, sinusitis	(Nadembega et al., 2011)
	Bark	Oral diseases	(Tapsoba and Deschamps, 2006)
	Leave, roots	Neuropsychiatric disorders	(Kinda et al., 2017)
Guinea	Stem-bark/Decoction	Malaria Neurological disorders	(Traore et al., 2013) (Romeiras et al., 2012)
Togo	Root	Diabetes mellitus and hypertension	(Karou et al., 2011)
	Bark/Decoction	Liver diseases	(Kpodar et al., 2016)
	Stem-bark, Root/Decoction	Tumor and chronic wounds	(Kola et al., 2020)
Ghana	Stem (dried)	Waist pains (Tina)	(Wodah and Asase, 2012)
	Bark, leaves, seeds	Diabetes, stroke, waist pain, fracture	(Ziblim et al., 2013)
	Stem bark/Decoction	Guinea worm, tapeworm	(Agyare et al., 2014)
	Root	Hypertension, diabetes, malaria, typhoid, fever	(Bekoe et al., 2020)
Cameroon	Leaf, bark/Decoction	Convulsions and epilepsy	(Bum et al., 2011)
Cameroon	Bark/Decoction, Maceration	Worms, ulcers, diarrhoea	(Djoueche et al., 2011; Jiofack et al., 2010)
Côte d'Ivoire	Bark	Labour pain and child delivery	(Iwu, 2014)
Côte d'Ivoire	Roots	Diarrhoea with blood, helminthes	(Koné et al., 2005)
Benin	Bark/Decoction	Diarrhoea, hypertension	(Dossou-Yovo et al., 2014; Lagnika et al., 2016)
	Bark, leave, root	Typhoid fever	(Kakpo et al., 2019)
Uganda	Root	HIV/AIDS, stomach aches, skin infections	(Anywar et al., 2020)
Mali	Leaves/Decoction, root	Malaria, schistosomiasis	(Bah et al., 2006; Keïta et al., 2020)

5 Phytochemistry of V. paradoxa

5.1

5.1 Flavonoids and phenolics

Phytochemically, different parts of V. paradoxa have been documented as source of flavonoids and phenolic compounds. A review of available published literature revealed that as much as 36 flavonoids and phenolics have been identified so far from V. paradoxa. Seven phenolic compounds, including isotachioside, gallic acid, (+)-catechin, (-)-epicatechin, quercetin, rutin, and arbutin (1–7) were isolated from seed kernel of V. paradoxa (Zhang et al., 2014) (Fig. 2 and Table 3). Phytochemical methods and HPLC-DAD-Q-TOF-MS analysis of V. paradoxa nutshell led to the identification of flavonoids taxifolin isomer, myricetin, luteolin, quercitrin, eriodictyol, quercetin methyl ether, calycosin, scutellarein, kaempferol, diosmetin, together with some simple phenolic acids homogentisic acid, protocatechuic acid, homovanillic acid, vanillic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, syringic acid, ferulic acid and methyl ester coumaric acid (8–25) (Da et al., 2019). Catechin-type molecules, such as (-)-epicatechin gallate (26), (+)-gallocatechin (27), (-)-epigallocatechin (28), (-)-gallocatechin gallate (29), and (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (30) were also isolated and reported from the V. paradoxa kernels and leaves methanol extracts (Ramsay et al., 2016; Steven et al., 2003; Sinan et al., 2020 ). A recent study by Sinan et al. (2020) also led to the identification of gambiriin C (31), luteolin-7-glucoside (32), myricitrin (33), and three myricetin derivatives (34–36) from the stem-bark of V. paradoxa. Additionally, Talla et al. (2016) isolated the compounds catechin (3) and epicatechin (4) from the stem-bark. Similarly, epicatechin (4), quercetin (5), and (+)-catechin (3) were also reported from the stem-bark of V. paradoxa by Eyong and his colleagues (Eyong et al., 2018).

Chemical structures of some notable flavonoids and phenolic compounds from Vitellaria paradoxa.

Table 3 Flavonoids and phenolics isolated and identified from Vitellaria paradoxa.

No.	Chemical constituent	Extract	Part(s)	Reference
1	Isotachioside	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
2	Gallic acid	Methanol	Kernel	(Steven et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2014, 2018)
		Methanol, Water	Leaf, Stem-bark	(Sinan et al., 2020)
3	(+)-Catechin	Methanol	Kernel	(Steven et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2014, 2018)
		Methanol	Stem-bark	(Eyong et al., 2018; Talla et al., 2016)
		Methanol, Water	Root Leaf	(Nyemb et al., 2018) (Sinan et al., 2020)
4	(-)-Epicatechin	Methanol	Kernel	(Steven et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2014)
		Methanol	Stem-bark	(Eyong et al., 2018; Talla et al., 2016)
		Methanol, Water	Leaf	(Sinan et al., 2020)
5	Quercetin	Methanol	Kernel	(Steven et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2014, 2018)
5	Quercetin	Methanol	Stem-bark	(Eyong et al., 2018; Sinan et al., 2020)
6	Rutin	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014, 2018)
7	Arbutin	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
8	Taxifolin	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
9	Myricetin	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
10	Luteolin	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
11	Quercitrin	Methanol Methanol, Water	Nutshell Stem-bark	(Da et al., 2019) (Sinan et al., 2020)
12	Eriodictyol	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
13	Quercetin methyl ether	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
14	Calycosin	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
15	Scutellarein	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
16	Kaempferol	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
17	Diosmetin	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
18	Homogentisic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
19	Protocatechuic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
20	Homovanillic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
21	Vanillic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
22	p-Hydroxybenzoic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
23	Syringic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
24	Ferulic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
25	Methyl ester coumaric acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
26	(-)-Epicatechin gallate	Methanol	Kernel Leaf	(Steven et al., 2003) (Sinan et al., 2020)
27	(+)-Gallocatechin	Methanol	Kernel	(Steven et al., 2003)
28	(-)-Epigallocatechin	Methanol	Kernel Leaf	(Steven et al., 2003) (Sinan et al., 2020)
29	(-)-Gallocatechin gallate	Methanol	Kernel	(Steven et al., 2003)
30	(-)-Epigallocatechin gallate	Methanol Methanol	Kernel Stem-bark	(Steven et al., 2003) (Sinan et al., 2020)
31	Gambiriin C	Methanol	Leaf	(Sinan et al., 2020)
32	Luteolin glucoside	Methanol, Water	Stem-bark	(Sinan et al., 2020)
33	Myricitrin	Methanol, Water	Stem-bark	(Sinan et al., 2020)
34	Myricetin 3-glucoside	Methanol, Water	Stem-bark	(Sinan et al., 2020)
35	Myricetin 7-glucoside	Methanol, Water	Stem-bark	(Sinan et al., 2020)
36	Myricetin galloylgalactoside	Methanol, Water	Stem-bark	(Sinan et al., 2020)

5.2

5.2 Triterpenoids and steroids

V. paradoxa is highly rich in triterpenoids (Fig. 3 and Table 4). Tapondjou et al. (2011) isolated four triterpenoid saponins (37–40) from the root-bark of V. paradoxa. Acetates of α-amyrin, β-amyrin, lupeol, butyrospermol, and cinnamates of α-amyrin, β-amyrin, lupeol and butyrospermol (41–48) were reportedly isolated from the seed kernel (Akihisa et al., 2010b). Similarly, preparative HPLC analysis of the non-saponifiable lipid fraction of V. paradoxa hexane kernel extract led to the identification of four triterpene alcohols, namely α-amyrin, β-amyrin, lupeol, and butyrospermol with traces of parkeol (49), 24-methylene-24-dihydroparkeol (50), 24-methylenecycloartanol (51), 24-methylenedammarenol (52), dammaradienol (53), Ψ-taraxasterol (54), and taraxasterol (55) (Akihisa et al., 2010a). Recently, a total of 16 oleanane-type triterpene acids and glycosides, including paradoxoside A-E (56–60) were reported from the kernel of V. paradoxa. Other identified compounds were tieghemelin A (61), arginine C (62), bassic acid (63), protobassic acid (64), 16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid (65), 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl bassic acid (66), 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid (67), 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl protobassic acid (68), 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl 16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid (69), Mi-glycoside I (70) and butyroside D (71) (Zhang et al., 2014). Two new ursane-type triterpenoids (72–73) together with known compound betulinic acid (74) were isolated from the stem-bark of V. paradoxa (Eyong et al., 2018). In another study, Eyong et al. (2015) identified three new bassic acid derivatives (75–77) along with previously isolated 16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid and 1α,2β,3β,19α-tetrahydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid (65, 72) from the stem-bark. Similarly, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, together with tormentic acid, corosolic acid, maslinic acid and their 3-O-p-(Z/E)-coumaroyl derivatives (78–85) were found to be present in the leaf of V. paradoxa (Catteau et al., 2017; 2020). A new triterpenoid, vitellaric acid (86), was recently reported from the stem-bark of V. paradoxa (Talla et al., 2016). Meanwhile, few steroidal compounds were found in V. paradoxa. They include β-sitosterol, stigmasterol (87, 88) (Eyong et al., 2018), spinasterol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and 22-dihydrospinasterol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (89, 90) (Zhang et al., 2014) and sitosterol cinnamate (91) (Buxton et al., 2020).

Chemical structures of triterpenoids and steroids from Vitellaria paradoxa.

Table 4 Triterpenoids and steroids isolated and reported from Vitellaria paradoxa.

No.	Chemical constituent	Extract	Part(s)	Reference
	Triterpenoids
37	Parkioside A	Butanol	Root-bark	(Tapondjou et al., 2011)
38	Parkioside B	Butanol	Root-bark	(Tapondjou et al., 2011)
39	Parkioside C	Butanol	Root-bark	(Tapondjou et al., 2011)
40	Androseptoside A	Butanol	Root-bark	(Tapondjou et al., 2011)
41	α-Amyrin acetate	Hexane	Seed kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010b)
42	β-Amyrin acetate	Hexane	Seed kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010b)
43	Lupeol acetate	Hexane	Seed kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010b)
44	Butyrospermol acetate	Hexane	Seed kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010b)
45	α-Amyrin cinnamate	Hexane	Seed kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010b)
46	β-Amyrin cinnamate	Hexane	Seed kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010b)
47	Lupeol cinnamate	Hexane	Seed kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010b)
48	Butyrospermol cinnamate	Hexane	Seed kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010b)
49	Parkeol	Hexane	Kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010a)
50	24-methylene-24-dihydroparkeol	Hexane	Kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010a)
51	24-methylenecycloartanol	Hexane	Kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010a)
52	24-methylenedammarenol	Hexane	Kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010a)
53	Dammaradienol	Hexane	Kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010a)
54	Ψ-taraxasterol	Hexane	Kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010a)
55	Taraxasterol	Hexane	Kernel	(Akihisa et al., 2010a)
56	Paradoxoside A	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
57	Paradoxoside B	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
58	Paradoxoside C	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
59	Paradoxoside D	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
60	Paradoxoside E	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
61	Tieghemelin A	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
62	Arginine C	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
63	Bassic acid	Methanol	Kernel Stem-bark	(Zhang et al., 2014) (Talla et al., 2016)
64	Protobassic acid	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
65	16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid	Methanol Ethyl acetate	Kernel Stem-bark	(Zhang et al., 2014) (Eyong et al., 2015)
66	3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl bassic acid	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
67	3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
68	3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl protobassic acid	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
69	3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl 16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
70	Mi-glycoside I	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
71	Butyroside D	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
72	1α,2β,3β,19α-tetrahydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid	Methanol Ethyl acetate	Stem-bark	(Eyong et al., 2018) (Eyong et al., 2015)
73	2β,3β,19α-trihydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid	Methanol	Stem-bark	(Eyong et al., 2018)
74	Betulinic acid	Methanol Ethanol	Stem-bark Leaves	(Eyong et al., 2018; Talla et al., 2016) (Adeleke et al., 2018)
75	5, 6-dihydrobassic acid	Ethyl acetate	Stem-bark	(Eyong et al., 2015)
76	6-dihydro-16α-hydroxybassic acid	Ethyl acetate	Stem-bark	(Eyong et al., 2015)
77	16α-hydroxybassic acid	Ethyl acetate	Stem-bark	(Eyong et al., 2015)
78	Ursolic acid	Dichloromethane	Leaf	(Catteau et al., 2017, 2020)
79	Oleanolic acid	Dichloromethane	Leaf	(Catteau et al., 2017, 2020)
80	Tormentic acid	Dichloromethane	Leaf	(Catteau et al., 2020)
81	Corosolic acid	Dichloromethane	Leaf	(Catteau et al., 2020)
82	Maslinic acid	Dichloromethane	Leaf	(Catteau et al., 2020)
83	3-O-p-(Z/E)-coumaroyltormentic acid	Dichloromethane	Leaf	(Catteau et al., 2020)
84	3-O-p-(Z/E)-coumaroylcorosolic acid	Dichloromethane	Leaf	(Catteau et al., 2020)
85	3-O-p-(Z/E)-coumaroylmaslinic acid	Dichloromethane	Leaf	(Catteau et al., 2020)
86	Vitellaric acid	Methanol	Stem-bark	(Talla et al., 2016)
	Steroids
87	β-sitosterol	Methanol	Stem-bark	(Eyong et al., 2018)
88	Stigmasterol	Methanol	Stem-bark	(Eyong et al., 2018)
89	Spinasterol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
90	22-dihydrospinasterol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
91	Sitosterol cinnamate	Methanol	Leaf	(Buxton et al., 2020)

5.3

5.3 Essential oils/volatile compounds

Essential oils (EO) are invaluable ingredients in foods, insecticides, as well as in cosmetics. EO and volatile compounds constitute part and parcel of V. paradoxa (Fig. 4). A number of EO and volatile compounds have been identified in V. paradoxa, mainly including p-cymene (92), limonene (93), 1, 8-cineol (94), guaiacol (95), β-elemene (96), linalool (97), (E)-caryophyllene (98), camphor (99), germacrene A (100), germacrene D (101), bicyclogermacrene (102), p-ethylguajacol (103), (E)-phytol (104), phytone (105) , α-pinene (106), β-pinene (107), cyclocitral (108), p-vinylguaiacol (109), α-copaene (110), β-cubebene (111), n-octanol (112), nonanal (113), n-nonanol (114), (E)-α-ionone (115), (E)-β-ionone (116), α-humulene (117), δ-cadinene (118), (E)-nerolidol (119), (3Z)-hexenyl benzoate (120), (2E)-hexenyl benzoate (121), caryophyllene oxide (122), humulene epoxide II (123), (3Z)-hexenyl tiglate (124), pentadecanal (125), farnesyl acetone (126), hexanal (127), (2E)-hexenal (128), (3Z)-hexenol (129), (2Z)-hexenol (130), n-hexanol (131), n-decane (132), (3Z)-hexenyl acetate (133), (2E)-hexenyl benzoate (134), and benzaldehyde (135) (Aboaba et al., 2014; Bail et al., 2009; Owolabi et al., 2012 ).

Chemical structures of essential oil and volatile compounds from Vitellaria paradoxa.

5.4

5.4 The other constituents

According to available literature, there are other phytoconstituents of V. paradoxa (Fig. 5 and Table 5), among which are 2-O-butyl-l-O-(2′-ethylhexyl) benzene-l, 8-dicarboxylate (136) and 1-phenyl-l, 4-pentanedione (137), which were isolated from the root-bark (Garba and Salihu, 2011). A new cerebroside (138) was found in the root of V. paradoxa (Nyemb et al., 2018). Compounds 3, 5, 7-trihydroxycoumarin (139), 5, 7-dihydroxycoumarin (140), lignans (+)-pinoresinol, (+)-medioresinol, (+)-syringaresinol (141–143), organic acids quinic acid (144), gluconic acid (145) and malic acid (146), salicylic acid (147), p-methoxybenzoic acid (148), p-methoxyphenylacetic acid (149), 2-hydroxy-5-(2-methoxyethyl) benzoic acid (150), coniferaldehyde (151), p-hydroxybenzaldehyde (152) are reportedly identified from V. paradoxa (Da et al., 2019; Sinan et al., 2020). Zhang et al. (2015) identified two jasmonate derivatives (153–154) from the defatted Shea kernels extract. Ndukwe et al. (2007b) isolated 1-naphthalene carboxylic acid derivative (155) from the methanolic stem extract. Similarly, two stereo-isomers of 2-O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)pentane-2,4-diol (156–157), and three sugars proto-quercitol (quercitol) (158), sucrose (159), and maltose (160) have also been reported from V. paradoxa (Zhang et al., 2014). Badifu (1989) found that Shea butter kernel contained 46% stearic acid, 41% oleic acid, 4% palmitic acid, 7% linoleic, and 1% linolenic acid. In a recent study, Yamamoto et al. (2018) found that lipids from V. paradoxa seeds contained palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, and linoleic acid. The fruit pulps and seeds are reported as good sources of proteins, vitamins C and A, fibres, ash, carbohydrate, minerals and energy (Abidemi and Hamilton-Amachree, 2021; Akoma et al., 2018; Okullo et al., 2010; Raimi et al., 2014; Ugese et al., 2008 ). Importantly, V. paradoxa seed oil contains twelve mineral elements, namely potassium (61.70 ± 0.30 ppm), iron (52.00 ± 0.11 ppm), calcium (30.24 ± 0.04 ppm), cobalt (0.01 ± 0.00 ppm), magnesium (6.24 ± 0.01 ppm), nickel (0.04 ± 0.00 ppm), zinc (0.72 ± 0.00 ppm), manganese (6.24 ± 0.01 ppm), lead (0.02 ± 0.00 ppm), sodium (5.10 ± 0.01 ppm), copper (0.80 ± 0.00 ppm) and cadmium (0.01 ± 0.00 ppm), and the contents of some harmful elements, such as lead and cadmium were not up to the maximum set by the food standard (Raimi et al., 2014). Therefore, the seeds and fruits of V. paradoxa could serve as the cheapest sources of nutrient supplements to fight dietary diseases, such as anaemia, night blindness and scurvy. The seeds are edible, and this is a plus for soap, food and cosmetic industries to fully utilize it as raw materials.

Structures of cerebroside, lignans, coumarins and other components from Vitellaria paradoxa.

Table 5 Other compounds from Vitellaria paradoxa.

No.	Chemical constituent	Compound class	Extract	Part(s)	Reference
136	2-O-butyl-l-O-(2′-ethylhexyl) benzene-l, 8-dicarboxylate	Ester	Ethanol	Root-bark	(Garba and Salihu, 2011)
137	1-phenyl-l, 4-pentanedione	Ketone	Ethanol	Root-bark	(Garba and Salihu, 2011)
138	Vitellaroside	Cerebroside	Methanol	Root	(Nyemb et al., 2018)
139	3, 5, 7-trihydroxycoumarin	Coumarin	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
140	5, 7-dihydroxycoumarin	Coumarin	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
141	(+)-pinoresinol	Lignan	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
142	(+)-medioresinol	Lignan	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
143	(+)-syringaresinol	Lignan	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
144	Quinic acid	Organic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
			Methanol, Water	Leaf, Stem-bark	(Sinan et al., 2020)
145	Gluconic acid	Organic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
146	Malic acid	Organic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
			Methanol, Water	Leaf, Stem-bark	(Sinan et al., 2020)
147	Salicylic acid	Organic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
148	p-Methoxybenzoic acid	Organic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
149	p-Methoxyphenylacetic acid	Organic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
150	2-Hydroxy-5-(2-methoxyethyl) benzoic acid	Organic acid	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
151	Coniferaldehyde	Organic aldehyde	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
152	p-Hydroxybenzaldehyde	Organic aldehyde	Methanol	Nutshell	(Da et al., 2019)
153	Glucosylcucurbic acid	Jasmonate	Methanol	Kernels	(Zhang et al., 2015)
154	Methyl glucosylcucurbate	Jasmonate	Methanol	Kernels	(Zhang et al., 2015)
155	3, 5, 6-trihydroxy-7-octyl-5, 6-dihydro-1-naphthalene carboxylic acid	Organic acid	Methanol	Stem	(Ndukwe et al., 2007b)
156	(2R,4S)-2-O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)pentane-2,4-diol	Alcohol	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
157	(2S,4S)-2- O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)pentane-2,4-diol	Alcohol	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
158	Proto-quercitol (quercitol)	Sugar	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
159	Sucrose	Sugar	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)
160	Maltose	Sugar	Methanol	Kernel	(Zhang et al., 2014)

6 Pharmacology of V. paradoxa

Various in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activities have been reported for the extracts and the bioactive constituents isolated from V. paradoxa (Fig. 6 and Table 6). The extracts and the isolated active compounds from different parts of V. paradoxa exhibited antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, chemopreventive, antidiabetic, antiviral, antiepileptic, antifungal, anti-diarrhoeal, wound-healing, insecticidal, anthelmintic, and antiprotozoal activities.

Schematic representation of pharmacological activities of Vitellaria paradoxa, showing some of their mechanisms of actions.

Table 6 Pharmacological activities of Vitellaria paradoxa extracts and its isolated compounds evaluated.

Activity	Plant extract/compound	Dose/concentration	Reference drug/sample	Experimental model/results	Reference
Anticancer and melanogenesis-inhibitory	Methanol bark extract	GI₅₀ = 27.00 ± 0.90, 24.00 ± 0.19, 67.00 ± 0.09 and 66.46 ± 0.37 μg/mL for NCI-H460, MCF7, PC3, and HeLa respectively.	Doxorubicin, GI₅₀ = 0.020 ± 0.001 to 0.62 ± 0.15 μg/mL	Suppress the proliferation of cancer cell lines NCI-H460 (lung cancer), MCF7 (breast cancer), PC3 (prostate cancer), and HeLa (cervix cancer cell) respectively.	(Tagne et al., 2014)
	Methanol leaf extract	IC₅₀ = 133.7 ± 11.8 (HeLa), 331.6 ± 29.7 (DU-145), >400 (THP-1), >400 (MCF-7), and > 400 ug/ml (HepG2)	Doxorubicin, IC₅₀ = less than 3.1–5.5 ± 1.1 ug/ml	XTT-based assay. Moderate inhibition of cancer prostate cells (DU145), cervix adenocarcinoma cells (HeLa), hepatocarcinoma cells (HepG2), breast cancer cells (MCF-7), and leukemia cells (THP-1)	(Mbaveng et al., 2011)
Activity	Plant extract/compound	Dose/concentration	Reference drug/sample	Experimental model/results	Reference
	Methanol bark extract	IC₅₀ = 68.8 ± 5.7 (HeLa), 162.5 ± 12.8 (DU-145), 262.1 ± 17.4 (THP-1), 106.0 ± 7.1 (MCF-7), and > 400 ug/ml (HepG2)
	Methanol root extract	IC₅₀ = > 400 ug/ml
	Methanol seed kernels	Melanin content = 39.4–42.5% Cell viability = 78.6–91.6% Activity-to-cytotoxicity ratio = 0.18–0.94	Arbutin	Better melanogenesis-inhibitory activity than arbutin at 100 μg/mL	(Zhang et al., 2018)
	α-Amyrin acetate (41), β-Amyrin acetate (42), Lupeol acetate (43), Butyrospermol acetate (44), α-Amyrin cinnamate (45), β-Amyrin cinnamate (46), Lupeol cinnamate (47),	IC₅₀ = 401, 405, 383, 380, 470, 452, 379, and 373 mol ratio/32 pmol TPA respectively	Retinoic acid, IC₅₀ = 482 mol ratio/32 pmol TPA	EBV-EA induced TPA in Raji cells	(Akihisa et al., 2010b).
	and Butyrospermol cinnamate (48)
	Parkioside A (37)	IC₅₀ = 23.68 (T98G), 27.32 (A375), 35.97 (MDA-MB 231) and 55.44 µM (HCT116)	Cisplatin, IC₅₀ = 0.50 – 8.75 µM	MTT-based assay	(Tapondjou et al., 2011)
	Parkioside B (38)	IC₅₀ = 2.93 (T98G), 2.74 (A375), 9.62 (MDA-MB 231) and 14.12 µM (HCT116)
	1α,2β,3β,19α-tetrahydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid (72), 2β,3β,19α-trihydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid (73) and Betulinic acid (74)	IC₅₀ = 63.5, 230 and 19.9 µM respectively	No report	in vitro inhibitory effect on breast cancer cells MDA-MB-231	(Eyong et al., 2018)
	Isotachioside (1), Catechin (3), Epicatechin (4), Quercetin (5),	Melanin content (22.6–92.1%) Cell viability (72.6–113.9%)	DMSO	Moderate melanogenesis-inhibitory activities	(Zhang et al., 2014)
	Rutin (6), Arbutin (7), Paradoxoside C (58), Paradoxoside D (59), Paradoxoside E (60), Protobassic acid (64), 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl bassic acid (66), 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid (67), 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl protobassic acid (68), 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl 16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid (69), Mi-glycoside I (70), (2R,4S)-2-O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)pentane-2,4-diol (156), (2S,4S)-2- O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)pentane-2,4-diol (157) and Proto-quercitol (158)	Activity-to-cytotoxicity (A/C) ratios (0.31–0.91) at varying concentrations (10, 30, and 100 µM)		in α-MSH-stimulated B16 melanoma cells
	Compounds 3, 4, 5, 58, 60, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, and 70	IC₅₀ values of 293 – 380 M ratio 32 pmol⁻¹ TPA	β-carotene, IC₅₀ = 397 M ratio 32 pmol⁻¹ TPA)	EBV-EA induced by TPA in Raji cells	(Zhang et al., 2014)
	Constituents 2, 5, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69, and 71	IC₅₀ values ranging from 7.6 to 82.0 µM	Cisplatin, IC₅₀ = 4.2 ± 1.1–18.8 ± 0.6 µM	MTT-based assay; Cytotoxicity against leukemia (HL-60), stomach (AZ521), breast (SK-BR-3), and lung (A549) cell lines	(Zhang et al., 2014)
	Glucosylcucurbic acid (153)	Melanin content (61.0%), Cell viability (84.9%) and A/C ratio (0.72)) at a higher concentration 100 μM	Arbutin (melanin content = 92.7, 91.0 and 71.5% at 10, 30 and 100 μM respectively)	Suppression of melanogenesis in a B16 melanoma cell	(Zhang et al., 2015)
Antibacterial	2-O-butyl-l-O-(2′-ethylhexyl) benzene-l, 8-dicarboxylate (136) and 1-phenyl-l, 4-pentanedione (137)	Zones of inhibition ranging from 25 to 28 mm at the test concentration of 7x10^2°μg/cm³	Amoxicillin Erythromycin Gentamycin Chloramphenicol	Paper disc diffusion method; Lower activity against P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, S. aureus, S. typhi and E. coli compared to the reference antibiotics	(Garba and Salihu, 2011)
	Gallic acid (2), Catechin (3), Quercetin (5), Spinasterol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (89) and Vitellaroside (138)	MICs = 8–128 μg/mL	Ciprofloxacin, MICs = 0.5–1 μg/mL	Growth inhibition against two or more Gram-negative bacteria: E. coli, S. typhi and P. aeruginosa	(Nyemb et al., 2018)
	Methanol root extract	MIC = 60 mg/ml	No report	Inhibition of S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae and S. typhi	(Ndukwe et al., 2007a)
	Methanol stem extract	MIC = 50 mg/ml		Inhibition of P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae, B. cereus and S. typhi
	Methanol leaf extract	MIC = 70 mg/ml		Inhibition of S. aureus, E. coli and S. typhi
	Methanol bark extract	MICs = 32 – 128 µg/ml	Gentamycin, MICs = 0.5 – 32 µg/ml	in vitro antigonorrhoeal activities against	(Mbaveng et al., 2011)
				strains of N. gonorrhoeae
	Methanol leaves extract	MICs = 64 – 512 µg/ml
	Methanol root extract	MICs = 128 – 512 µg/ml
	Aqueous stem-bark extract	Zones of inhibition (mm) at 7.2 ± 0.7, 6.5 ± 0.8, 10.0 ± 0.3, 9.1 ± 0.7, 11.04 ± 0.9	Sparfloxacin, zone of inhibition = 24.1 ± 3.7–32.7 ± 2.5	Agar-well dilution method; Inhibition of K. pneumoniae, P. mirabilis, Enterococcus faecalis, E. coli, and S. aureus respectively. However, P. aeruginosa and S. pyogenes were not inhibited.	(Ayankunle et al., 2012)
	Ethanol stem-bark extracts	Zones of inhibition (mm) at 9,0 ± 0.7, 8.3 ± 0.9, 19.5 ± 0.8, 10.5 ± 0.7, and 21.0 ± 0.5
	70% aqueous methanol combined extract, including V. paradoxa	MICs at 154 µg/ml and 466 µg/ml	Isoniazid	Inhibition of H₃₇R_v strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis BCG respectively using broth microdilution method	(Ibekwe et al., 2014)
	Hydroethanolic stem-bark extract	MICs = 78.13 and 625 μg/ml	Rifampicin, MICs = 0.49 μg/ml and 3.91 μg/ml	Inhibited H₃₇R_v strain of M. tuberculosis and a clinical strain of M. tuberculosis respectively using broth microdilution method	(Assam et al., 2020)
	Whole essential oils (stem-bark)	MIC > 625 μg/ml	Gentamicin (positive control); DMSO (negative control)	Microbroth dilution; No activity against S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, E. coli and B. cereus	(Owolabi et al., 2012)
Antiprotozoal	70% aqueous methanol leaves and stem-bark extracts	IC₅₀ = 39 μg/ml (leaves); IC₅₀ = 66 μg/ml (stem-bark)	No report	SYBRGreen I assay; in vitro antimalarial activity against 3D7 strain of P. falciparum	(Amlabu and Nock 2018)
	Dichloromethane bark extract	IC₅₀ = 43.94 ± 13.44 μg/ml	Chloroquine: IC₅₀ = 0.016 ± 0.004 μg/ml	Moderate in vitro inhibition of P. falciparum	(Jansen et al., 2010)
Antioxidant	Methanol-water stem-bark extract	IC₅₀ = 0.008777 mg/ml	Ascorbic acid (0.078777 mg/ml)	Inhibition of DPPH radicals	(Olasunkanmi et al., 2017)
	Methanol stem-bark extract	IC₅₀ = 12.28 ± 5.87 μg/ml	Ascorbic acid, IC₅₀ = 9.32 ± 2.01 µg/ml	DPPH free radical scavenging	(Talla et al., 2016)
	Methanol stem-bark extract	25 and 50 mg/kg for 8 days		Reduction of glutathione and malondialdehyde (MDA) level in scopolamine-treated rats	(Foyet et al., 2016)
	Isotachioside (1), Gallic acid (2), catechin (3), epicatechin (4), Quercetin (5), and Rutin (6)	IC₅₀ = 46.4 ± 6.1, 10.9 ± 2.5, 7.1 ± 3.2, 5.8 ± 2.3, 12.9 ± 3.4 and 6.0 ± 0.3 μM respectively.	α-tocopherol (IC₅₀ = 13.0 μM)	DPPH free-radical scavenging activity	(Zhang et al., 2014)
	Parkioside B (38)	IC₅₀ = 16.2 ± 2 and 25 ± 2 μM respectively	Trolox (IC₅₀ = 18.8 ± 1.5 and 12.5 ± 0.3 μM respectively)	DPPH and ABTS radicals scavenging activities respectively	(Tapondjou et al., 2011)
Anti-inflammatory	Methanol stem-bark	75 mg/kg for 14 days	Diclofenac (10 mg/kg)	66.67% inhibition of inflammation after 1 h of carrageenan–induced acute inflammation paw edema in rat	(Foyet et al., 2015)
	Ethyl acetate stem-bark extract	150 mg/ kg		66.67% inhibition in the first phase after 1 h of carrageenan-induced inflammation in rat	(Eyong et al., 2015)
	Nuts extract	111.6, 223.2, and 446.4 mg/kg for 8 weeks	No report	Reduce the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators - TNF-α, (IL)-1β, and IL-6 in post-traumatic-induced osteoarthritic rats	(Sudirman et al., 2020)
	α-amyrin acetate (41), β-amyrin acetate (42), lupeol acetate (43), butyrospermol acetate (44), α-amyrin cinnamate (45), β-amyrin cinnamate (46), lupeol cinnamate (47), and butyrospermol cinnamate (48)	ID₅₀ = 0.61, 0.75, 0.54, 0.71, 0.35, 0.27, 0.15, and 0.21 μmol ear^-1 respectively	Indomethacin, (ID₅₀ = 0.91 μmol ear^-1)	in vivo anti-inflammatory activities in a TPA-induced inflammation ear edema in rats	(Akihisa et al., 2010b).
Anti-diabetic	Aqueous bark extract	125, 250, 500 mg/kg for 14 days	Glibenclamide, 2.5 mg/kg	Reduction in blood sugar level of alloxan-induced diabetic rats	(Miaffo et al., 2019)
	Aqueous bark extract	125, 250 and 500 mg/kg for 28 days	Metformin (250 mg/kg)	Significant reduction in the glucose concentration, and	(Miaffo et al., 2021)
				increase in serum insulin of the streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats at 250 and 500 mg/kg
	Methanol leave extract	62.5, 125, 250, 500 μg/mL	Acarbose, (IC₅₀ of 76.34 ± 0.12 μg /ml)	Inhibition of alpha amylase enzyme, with IC₅₀ of 224.95 ± 0.14 μg /ml	(Niwoye et al., 2019)
	Methanol leave extract	200, 400 and 800 mg/kg	Glibenclamide (5 mg/kg)	Significant decrease in glucose level of alloxan-induced diabetic rats at the extract highest concentration from 196 ± 1.08 to 82 ± 1.58 (mg/dl) after 4 h	(Odoh and Obiano, 2020).
	Gallic acid (2), Catechin (3), Quercetin (5), Spinasterol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (89) and Vitellaroside (138)	(IC₅₀ = 4.30 ± 0.01–68.3 ± 1.25 μM) h-TNAP values (41.24 ± 1.33–312.54 ± 6.44 µM)	Acarbose (IC₅₀ = 234.6 ± 2.01 μM) Levamisole (20.2 ± 1.9 µM) L-Phenylalanine (80.2 ± 0.001 µM)	Weak to strong in vitro inhibition of α-glucosidase, and moderate inhibition of alkaline phosphatases enzymes ((h-TNAP and h-IAP)	(Nyemb et al., 2018)
		h-IAP values (47.95 ± 0.35–777.47 ± 18.55 µM)
Anti-diarrhoeal	Methanol stem-bark extract	100, 200 and 400 mg/kg for 6 h	Diphenoxylate (5 mg/kg)	Dose-dependent reduction in castor oil-induced diarrhoea in mice	(Abubakar et al., 2013)
Antifungal	Ethanol bark extract	200 mg/ml		Growth inhibition of A. niger, A. flavus, E. floccosum, M. audouinii and T. mentagrophytes, with MICs ranging from 50 to 80 mg/ml	(Ahmed et al., 2009)
	Crude butter extract	2 ml, 4 ml and 6 ml	No report	Growth inhibition of Fusarium oxysporum, Zygomyces spp., A. niger, Candida tropicalis, and Penicillium italicum, with % inhibition ranging from 10% to 60%	(Chuku et al., 2017)
Antiviral	Ethanol extract	1 mg/ml	No report	50% inhibition of human polio virus (Type 1) and Astrovirus	(Kudi and Myint, 1999)
Toxicity	Aqueous stem-bark extract	240 mg/kg for 14 days		Acute toxicity observed in the tested mice	(Rabo et al., 2000)
	Methanol stem-bark	5, 50, 300, 2000, and 5000 mg/kg for 14 days	Negative control (distill water, 1 ml)	No behavioural change or mortality in the studied rats	(Oduola et al., 2016)
	Ethanol leaves and seed extracts	800 μg/ml	4-Nitroquinoline-1- oxide	No genotoxicity below extract concentration. However, occurrence of marginal genotoxicity at 800 μg/ml was noticed.	(Odunola et al., 2019)
	Shea nuts colour	51.3, 226.1, 986.8, 3775.5 mg/kg/day for male rats for 13 weeks 56.4, 272.9, 1166.7 and 4387.7 mg/kg/day for the		No observable toxicological changes	(Kitamura et al., 2003)
	Essential oils (Leaf and stem-bark	female rats for 13 weeks 10, 100, and 1000 ppm	DMSO (Negative control)	Moderate toxicity against brine shrimp larvae (LC₅₀ = 160.098 and 171.240 μg/ml respectively)	(Aboaba et al., 2014).
Anthelmintic	90% ethanol root extract	LC₁₀₀ = 0.0963 mg/ml	Ivermectin (LC_{100 =} 0.00096 mg/ml) and fenbendazole (LC_{100 =} 0.0123 mg/ml)	Larvicidal activity against Haemonchus contortus	(Koné et al., 2005)
Insecticidal	Sitosterol cinnamate (91)	LC₅₀ = 6.92 mgmL⁻¹ (adult) LC_{50 =} 3.91 mgmL⁻¹ (larvae)	Deltamethrin	Growth inhibition of adult and larvae forms of Tribolium castaneum Hebst	(Buxton et al., 2020)
Wound-healing	Ethanol stem-bark extract		Mupirocin	Reduction in wound size of studied rats from 5.0 ± 0.0 cm to 0.4 ± 0.05 cm on day 9	(Oyetoro and Sonibare, 2015)
	Oil extract		Dermazin 99.78% (13th day)	Significant reduction in the wound size up to 99.50% (13th day)	(Adedeji et al., 2019)

Concentration: ID₅₀, 50% infectious dose_; GI₅₀, 50% of maximal inhibition of cell proliferation; IC₅₀, half maximal inhibitory concentration; MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration; LC₅₀, lethal concentration 50; LC_100, absolute lethal concentration Cell lines: HCT-116, colon cancer cell; MDA-MB-231, human breast cancer cell; T98G, human glioblastoma multiforme cell; A375, human malignant melanoma cell; A549, lung cancer cell; B16 cells, murine tumor cells; Chemicals: DMSO, Dimethyl sulphoxide; BCG, Bacillus Calmette-Guérin; Activity: XTT, XTT (2,3-Bis-(2-Methoxy-4-Nitro-5-Sulfophenyl)–2H-Tetrazolium-5-Carboxanilide); TPA, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate; EBV-EA, Epstein–Barr virus early antigen; MTT, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; α-MSH, alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone; DPPH, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; ABTS, (2,2′-Azinobis-(3-Ethylbenzthiazolin-6-Sulfonic Acid)); Organisms: E. coli, Escherichia coli; S. typhi, Salmonella typhi; P. aeruginosa, Pseudomonas aeruginosa; B. subtilis, Bacillus subtilis; S. aureus, Staphylococcus aureus; K. pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae; N. gonorrhoeae, Niesseria gonorrhoeae; P. mirabilis, Proteus mirabilis; E. faecalis, Enterococcus faecalis; S. pyogenes, Streptococcus pyogenes; B. cereus, Bacillus cereus; P. falciparum, Plasmodium falciparum; A. niger, Aspergillus niger; A. flavus, Aspergillus flavus; E. floccosum, Epidermophyton floccosum; M. audouinii, Microsporum audouinii; T. mentagrophytes, Trichophyton mentagrophytes; Enzymes/proteins: TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha; (IL)-1β, interleukin 1 beta; IL-6, interleukin 1; h-TNAP, human tissue nonspecific alkaline phosphatase; h-IAP, human intestinal alkaline phosphatase.

6.1

6.1 Anticancer and melanogenesis-inhibitory activity

Cancer, undoubtedly, remains a global burden, and the roles of medicinal plants in fighting this scourge are in no small measures. The increasingly continuous use of V. paradoxa in the treatment of cancer and tumor ethnomedicinally may be connected with reports on its cytotoxic and melanogenesis-inhibitory activity (Zhang et al., 2018) (Table 6). To start with, the methanol crude extracts from the leaves, bark and roots of V. paradoxa were found to suppress the proliferation of some cancer cell lines (Mbaveng et al., 2011; Tagne et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2018 ). The methanol extract of the bark had the most effective cytotoxic activity against the cancer cell lines than the methanol leaves and root extracts (Mbaveng et al., 2011). These activities are attributed to the presence of triterpenoids and phenolics in V. paradoxa. An early study showed that triterpenoid esters and cinnamates (41–48) exerted better in vivo antitumor promoting activity against Epstein-Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) induced by 12-O-teradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA) in Raji cells when compared with the standard retinoic acid (IC₅₀ = 482 mol ratio/32 pmol TPA) (Akihisa et al., 2010b) (Table 6). One year after, triterpenoid 38 was found to be more cytotoxic against T98G cells than the clinically useful chemotherapeutic agent, cisplatin (IC₅₀ of 7.79 µM) using (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. It showed inhibition of the T98G cell line with IC₅₀ of 2.93 µM (Tapondjou et al., 2011).

Triterpenoids 72, 73 and 74 exerted inhibitory effect on cancer cell (Eyong et al., 2018). Mechanism of action indicates that the compound 74 induced apoptosis as it causes an increase in the number of cells positive for annexin V compared to vehicle-treated cells. However, necrosis was not detected at the approximate IC₅₀ dose (19.9 µM). Table 6 depicts other constituents of V. paradoxa that have been reported for exerting anticancer and melanogenesis-inhibitory activities. Notably, mechanism studies on paradoxoside E (60) at 100 µM showed that it inhibited the occurrence of melanogenesis by regulating the differentiation and development of melanocytes, as well as enzymes tyrosinase-related protein-1 (TYRP-1) and TYRP-2, which are responsible for the production of melanin. Further mechanism studies showed that cytotoxicity of tieghemelin A (61) (IC₅₀ = 13.5 μM) against A549 cells was due to cell death via apoptosis by flow cytometry (Zhang et al., 2014). In another study, Zhang and his colleagues (2015) demonstrated that glucosylcucurbic acid (153) inhibited the stimulation of melanogenesis at a concentration of 100 μM. Mechanism investigation revealed that 153, in a concentrated-dependent manner, inhibited the onset of melanogenesis by suppressing the expression of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), followed by reduction in enzymes TYRP-1 and TYRP-2.

6.2

6.2 Antibacterial activity

V. paradoxa exhibited antibacterial activity against the strains of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, when compared with clinically used fluoroquinolone drug, sparfloxacin (Table 6). While the crude extracts showed varying degree of inhibition of bacteria, the essential oils exhibited no activity. The choice of solvents plays a significant role in the antibacterial activities (Ajijolakewu and Awarun, 2015; Ayankunle et al., 2012; Falana et al., 2015; Mbaveng et al., 2011; Ndukwe et al., 2007a; Ogunwande et al., 2001; Olasunkanmi et al., 2017; Olaleye et al., 2015; Temitope and Oluwadare, 2015; Owolabi et al., 2012; Wada et al., 2019 ). In a separate study, the in vivo effects of aqueous extracts of V. paradoxa against infection caused by Salmonella typhimurium have been reported (Fodouop et al., 2015; Fodouop et al., 2017). Ibekwe et al. (2014) found that a combined plants recipe including V. paradoxa inhibited the growth of H₃₇R_v strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis BCG. It is worth mentioning that a recent study by Assam et al. (2020) has proved the effectiveness of V. paradoxa against tuberculosis by inhibiting the growth of H₃₇R_v strain of M. tuberculosis and a clinical strain of M. tuberculosis.

Antibacterial activity of V. paradoxa extracts is attributed to its phytochemicals, including flavonoids, triterpenoids, cerebroside, and steroid present in the crude extracts (Table 6). Besides the direct antibacterial activity of these isolated constituents, a combinatory therapy has also been reported. Catteau et al. (2017) showed the potency of combining ursolic acid (78) and oleanolic acid (79) with known antibiotics β-lactams, namely ampicillin and oxacillin as potential resistance-reversing agents against clinical isolates of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). They attributed MRSA phenotype reversal to the capacity of 78 and 79 to delocalize penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2) from the septal division site, which further interrupts the synthesis of peptidoglycan. Combinatory therapy provides much better activity when compared with monotherapy and ensures an improved treatment efficiency with little or no side effects (Neutel, 2011). It has evolved as the new direction to combat antimicrobial drug-resistance. In the future, more studies on combination therapies between the active constituents of V. paradoxa and other drugs should be considered.

6.3

6.3 Antiprotozoal activity

The high prevalence of malaria in Africa shows that the disease is still endemic to the continent. It is caused by a parasitic protozoa, Plasmodium falciparum, and it is one of the major causes of death in the tropical regions (Mbacham et al., 2019). No doubt, the use of V. paradoxa in the treatment of fever and malaria is common in the traditional African medicine (Table 2). Only few studies have reported the pharmacological activity of V. paradoxa in terms of antiprotozoal activity (Table 6). Amlabu and Nock (2018) found that aqueous methanol leaves extract of the species moderately inhibited the 3D7 strain of Plasmodium falciparum. Previously, the bark extract of V. paradoxa has shown in vitro inhibition of this strain, but with weaker activity than the standard drug, chloroquine (Jansen et al., 2010). The lesser antiplasmodial activity of the V. paradoxa is probably due to its ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, tormentic acid, corosolic acid, maslinic acid, 3-O-p-(Z/E)-coumaroyltormentic acid, 3-O-p-(Z/E)-coumaroylcorosolic acid and 3-O-p-(Z/E)-coumaroylmaslinic acid (78–85). These triterpenoids, in a recent study by Catteau et al. (2020), were shown to exhibited no good antiplasmodial activity against P. falciparum. However, they exhibited promising antitrypanosomal activity (IC₅₀ = 0.7–15.3 μM) (Catteau et al., 2020).

6.4

6.4 Antioxidant activity

Oxidative stress has been linked to pathophysiological conditions, immune dysfunction, chronic diseases, such as inflammation, cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis, as well as neurological disorders, such as Parkinson and Alzheimer which are very rampant nowadays (Dasgupta and Klein, 2014). Meanwhile, it has been reported that medicinal plants are natural reservoir of antioxidant compounds (Bhatt et al., 2013), and these compounds are potential secondary metabolites in the fight against oxidative stress-related diseases by preventing, intercepting and repairing the body cells via the mechanistic stoppage of excess reactive oxygen species (ROS), and free radicals production in the body. It is noteworthy that free radicals themselves maintain homeostasis in the body cell, and serve as signaling molecules; however excessive production is a major cause of oxidative stress diseases (Bhatt et al., 2013). The roles of V. paradoxa and its active constituents as natural source of antioxidants have been reported by researchers both in vitro and in vivo (Foyet et al., 2016; Olasunkanmi et al., 2017; Talla et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2014 ). The techniques employed for identifying the antioxidant activity include free radical scavenging abilities using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and the [2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate)] (ABTS) assays. The stem-bark has been the most investigated part, and has been reported to be rich in phenolics and flavonoids (Talla et al., 2016). Table 6 depicts the antioxidant activities of the flavonoids, phenolic and triterpenoid from V. paradoxa (Tapondjou et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2014). The phenolic and flavonoids showed stronger antioxidant than, or almost equivalent to, the standard α-tocopherol. The stronger radical scavenging activity of the flavonoids could be explained on the basis of presence of more phenolic (OH) groups, leading to increase in H-radical-donation to the rampaging free radicals, which subsequently interferes and halts the oxidative mechanisms.

6.5

6.5 Anti-inflammatory activity

V. paradoxa stem-bark extracts showed anti-inflammatory activity in vivo using carrageenan–induced acute inflammation paw edema model (Eyong et al., 2015; Foyet et al., 2015). The nuts extract ameliorates inflammation-related symptoms in post-traumatic-induced osteoarthritic rats by decreasing the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators (Sudirman et al., 2020). The anti-inflammatory effect of V. paradoxa was reportedly due to the suppression of the pro-inflammatory mediators, such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin-8 (IL-8), and interleukin-12 (IL-12) via the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathway in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced J774 macrophage cell lines and LPS-induced inflammation in canine keratinocytes (Lim et al., 2021; Verma et al., 2012). Triterpenoids and phenolics in V. paradoxa are involved in the anti-inflammation process (Zhang et al., 2014). The acetates of α-amyrin (41), β-amyrin (42), lupeol (43), butyrospermol (44), and cinnamates of α-amyrin (45), β-amyrin (46), lupeol (47), and butyrospermol (48) showed in vivo inhibition of inflammation comparable to that presented by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), indomethacin (Akihisa et al., 2010b).

6.6

6.6 Anti-diabetic activity

Diabetes mellitus is a growing silent killer disease in the world. It is closely related to oxidative stress. Moreover, the roles of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of diabetes, especially Type II diabetes and its complications have been emphasized (Dos Santos et al., 2019). The indigenous use of V. paradoxa in the treatment of diabetes and some of its complications has been documented (Table 2). Likewise, scientific validation of the traditional use of V. paradoxa has been reported in the available literature (Miaffo et al., 2019, 2021; Niwoye et al., 2019; Odoh and Obiano, 2020 ) (Table 6). V. paradoxa nutshells exhibited potent α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, with IC₅₀ ranging from 8.76 to 30.68 µg/ml when compared to the standard, acarbose (IC₅₀ = 119.71 µg/ml) (Da et al., 2019). The aqueous and the hydro-alcoholic bark extracts of V. paradoxa in rabbits at doses of 80, 400 and 800 mg/kg/bw showed hypoglycemic effects of 3.57% and 15.91%, respectively within 2 h of oral treatment. With a concentration of 800 mg/kg/bw, it was found that the blood glucose level was reduced from 60.87% to 3.26% to be stabilized to normal blood sugar level (Coulibaly et al., 2014). Regarding the chemical constituents of V. paradoxa, compounds 2, 3, 5, 89 and 138 were found to exert weak to strong in vitro inhibition of α-glucosidase. Notably, constituents 5, 2 and 3 showed potent α-glucosidase inhibition (IC₅₀ = 4.30, 5.35 and 68.3 μM, respectively) in comparison to the anti-diabetic drug acarbose (IC₅₀ = 234.6 μM). Furthermore, all the compounds had moderate alkaline phosphatase inhibition, with 5 exhibited better human intestinal alkaline phosphatase (h-IAP) inhibition (IC₅₀ = 47.95 µM) and 89 showed promising human tissue nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (h-TNAP) inhibition (IC₅₀ = 41.24 µM) (Nyemb et al., 2018).

6.7

6.7 Anti-diarrhoeal activity

V. paradoxa has not received much attention from the scientific community in term of its anti-diarrhoeal activity. Abubakar et al. (2013) found that V. paradoxa stem-bark exhibited anti-diarrhoeal activity. The study employed the use of castor oil-induced diarrhoea in mice using different doses of the plant extract. The percentage inhibition (%) of the diarrhoea in the treated mice was dose dependent, with 83% inhibition at highest extract concentration when compared with the reference drug diphenoxylate which produced 100% inhibition (Table 6).

6.8

6.8 Antifungal and antiviral activity

Ethanol, water and acetone extracts of V. paradoxa leaves, stem-bark and roots at concentrations of 62.5, 125 and 250 mg/ml against the dermatophytes (Microsporum audouinii, Microsporum ferugineum, Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Trichophyton schoenleinii) were found to exhibit varying antifungal activities, with ethanol bark extract had largest zone of inhibition (20.5 mm at 250 mg/ml) against M. audouinii, which was followed by acetone barks extract, with zone of inhibition (19 mm at 250 mg/ml) against M. audouinii. The aqueous extracts showed no antifungal activity with the exception of the bark extract (6.0 mm at 250 mg/ml) against M. audouinii (Boyejo et al., 2019). In another study, V. paradoxa bark extract inhibited the growth of Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Epidermophyton floccosum, M. audouinii and T. mentagrophytes (Ahmed et al., 2009). Crude butter extract of V. paradoxa show inhibition against Fusarium oxysporum, Zygomyces spp., Aspergillus niger, Candida tropicalis, and Penicillium italicum (Chuku et al., 2017). Bolu et al. (2015) showed that the bark extract of V. paradoxa at concentrations of 5 and 10 mg/ml exerted antifungal activity in Aspergillus-infected broiler birds. Meanwhile the only study on the antiviral activity of V. paradoxa showed that ethanol extract inhibited 50% of human polio virus (Type 1) and Astrovirus. However, the extract was not active against human herpes simplex virus (Type 1), bovine parvovirus, canine parvovirus and equine herpes simplex virus (Kudi and Myint, 1999). Further studies are needed to compare the antifungal and antiviral activities of the various extracts with a known standard antifungal and antiviral agent respectively.

6.9

6.9 Other pharmacological activities

Besides these pharmacological activities, Ramsay et al. (2016) reported the anthelmintic activity of proanthocyanidins from Shea meals against pig parasite, Ascaris suum. Koné et al. (2005) studied the anthelmintic activity of root extract of V. paradoxa against Haemonchus contortus (Table 6). The sitosterol cinnamate (91) isolated from the plant was found to exhibit insecticidal activity against Tribolium castaneum Hebst, a known storage pest (Buxton et al., 2020). Ethanol crude extract of V. paradoxa stem-bark was reported to exhibit noticeable in vivo wound-healing activity (Oyetoro and Sonibare, 2015), with reduction in wound is similar to the effect produced by the standard drug, mupirocin. Similarly, application of V. paradoxa oil to open wound in Wistar rats was found to produce wound-healing effects similar to reference dermazin (Adedeji et al., 2019). Ethyl acetate extract from V. paradoxa showed moderate protective effects against wood termites (Ekhuemelo et al., 2020). In vivo antiepileptic activity of the species has also been reported (Bum et al., 2011).

6.10

6.10 Nanoparticles synthesis using V. paradoxa extracts and their applications

Nanoparticles (NPs) consist of solid colloidal particles with size ranging from 10 to 1000 nanometres (nm). Over the last few years, researchers have developed keen interest in the synthesis of nanoparticles using various plant extracts, and thus it has emerged as a promising potential with applications in the development of novel antimicrobial agents, formulation of drug-delivery system and medical coating devices, bio-imaging and biosensor, cell labelling and gene delivery, hyperthermia, and theranostic (Barberia-Roque et al., 2019; Bindhu et al., 2020; Castillo-Henríquez et al., 2020; El-Refai et al., 2018; Ivanova et al., 2018; Ren et al., 2019; Shanmugapriya et al., 2020; Tiwari et al., 2019; Uddin et al., 2017; Yusefi et al., 2020 ). Phytosynthesis of NPs, which has formed an active area of current nanobiotechnological research, is more advantageous because of its simplicity, low-cost involvement, stronger reducing ability, zero contamination, eco-protection and lesser negative environmental impact (Burdușel et al., 2018; Rajan et al., 2015).

Research reports, though few, are documented in the literature which highlight the use of V. paradoxa for the synthesis of NPs. Green biosynthesis of silver and titanium NPs was achieved using leaf extract of V. paradoxa. The average size of the particles was found to be in the 200 nm range. The NPs synthesized were characterized using FT-IR spectroscopy, XRD, EDX and HRSEM. Synthesized NPs possessed adsorptive properties for the removal of phenol from pharmaceutical effluents (Mustapha et al., 2020). In another study, biosynthesis of lipid-based nanocarrier from Shea butter (V. paradoxa) was prepared as an efficient drug-delivery system for Nimesulide. The average mean size of the nanoparticle was 90 nm. The synthesized lipid nanoparticle exhibited significant in vivo antinociceptive and antiedematogenic activities compared to the free drug (Raffin et al., 2012). In another attempt, solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN) was formulated from V. paradoxa and investigated for its topical applications. The average size of the particles was approximately 220 nm with round and smooth shape. The NPs synthesized were characterized using ELS, DSC, AFM, SEM, and DLS (Avilés-Castrillo et al., 2020). Also, Shea butter (V. paradoxa) was utilized to prepare nanoparticles for the encapsulation of curcumin. The NPs size ranged from 50 to 230 nm and was found to have significant influence on the encapsulation efficiency (Hajjali et al., 2015). In vivo anti-inflammatory activity of diclofenac multiple emission has also been reported using V. paradoxa fat as carrier (Odeku, 2019). Biosynthesis of NPs using plant extracts is an eco-friendly process with several applications in different fields of science and technology. Despite the richness of bioactive constituents in V. paradoxa, the species has not been fully exploited for NPs synthesis.

6.11

6.11 Clinical studies

Shea nut oil extract (SheaFlex75) from V. paradoxa has been clinically conducted in relation to knee osteoarthritis by Chen et al. (2013). The experiment involved non-randomized control, intervention study in thirty-three patients with medical evidence of knee osteoarthritis. Participants were given 6 pills per day for 16 weeks. The result of this study showed significant improvement in the relieve of symptoms (pain and stiffness in particular) of knee osteoarthritis and muscle activity in the studied patients after 16-week intervention. Triterpenoids and phenolics could be responsible for the alleviation of pain and improvement in knee muscles since these compounds known for their anti-inflammatory potential are present in the seed kernel of the plant (Tables 3 and 4). Kalgo et al. (2019) studied the effects of the stem-bark aqueous extract of V. paradoxa on the viability of human neutrophil. Thirty healthy volunteered humans were used for the study. The study showed that the viability of the neutrophil decreases with the increase in extract concentrations (25, 50, 100 and 1000 µg/ml). In addition to the clinical study on human neutrophil stated above, cytotoxic effects of the aqueous stem-bark extract have been evaluated using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (Kalgo et al., 2020). Thirty healthy participants were recruited for the study. It was revealed that the level of cytotoxicity was simultaneously increased with the increment in extract concentrations (25, 50, 100 and 1000 µg/ml).

7 Toxicology

The safety and toxicity of the various parts of the V. paradoxa remain unclear according to the existing literature. Rabo et al. (2000) reported acute toxicity in mice of the aqueous crude extract of stem-bark at a dose of 240 mg/kg for 14 days. The clinical signs of manifestation ranged from mild depression, difficult respiratory and anorexia at low doses to weakness, pulmonary congestion, dehydration, nephritis, and necrosis before death at high doses. In another study by Oduola et al. (2016) on the acute hepatoxicity of the V. paradoxa stem-bark methanol extract at doses of 5, 50, 300, 2000, and 5000 mg/kg, it was found that there was no behavioural change or mortality in the studied rats after 24 h until 14 days after treatment. A study reported the genotoxicity of both the leaves and seed ethanol extracts of V. paradoxa to E. coli PQ34 strain using the SOS chromotest. It was found that both extracts showed no genotoxicity at extract concentration less than 800 μg/ml in comparison to the reference 4-Nitroquinoline-1- oxide (4-NQO). However, marginal genotoxicity was found at 800 μg/ml (Odunola et al., 2019). Kitamura et al. (2003) showed that there were no toxicological changes in Wistar rats when fed with Shea nuts colour at doses ranging from 51.3 to 3775.5 mg/kg/day for the males, and 56.4 to 4387.7 mg/kg/day for the females for 13 weeks. Baldrick et al. (2001) compared the toxicity of hardened Shea oleine (7 or 15%) with an unhardened type (7 or 15%) as well as other commercial products, including palm oils, toffee powder, and cocoa butter in rat model. The animals were examined after dose administration both at pre-reproductive and post-reproductive stages. It was revealed that the Shea oleines (hardened and unhardened) showed no toxicity in the treated rats. Regarding the essential oils from the leaves and stem-bark of V. paradoxa, it was reported that the extracted oils exhibited moderate toxicity (Aboaba et al., 2014) (Table 6). Although the toxicological investigations were mainly conducted on animals (rats), further studies on the toxicity of V. paradoxa extracts on healthy dogs, monkeys or human in clinical practice should be assessed.

8 Conclusions and future perspectives

V. paradoxa is a medicinal plant that is widely utilized in the clinical traditional medicine for the treatment of sickness and diseases, such as cancer, cough, tuberculosis, diarrhoea, hypertension, fever and skin infections, malaria, rheumatism, diabetes, obesity, inflammation, epilepsy, wounds, lung, liver, and kidney disorders. The herbal preparation often involved decoction of the plant parts. Different in vitro and in vivo studies conducted are in tandem with majority of the traditional uses; however, many of them still need clinical validation. Among the clinical traditional uses that are yet to be pharmacologically studied are the applications in the treatment of obesity, lung, liver and kidney disorders as well as neuropsychiatric-related illness. As for these uninvestigated traditional uses, they may be assumed as remarkable gaps for future experiments, both in vitro and in vivo. Similarly, clinical evaluation of the V. paradoxa bioactivities, particularly its anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer and antioxidant should be of top priority in the future. Besides, V. paradoxa has been utilized as an important precursor for the green synthesis of nanoparticles. These nanoparticles showed both pharmacological activity and adsorptive property.

Phytochemically, >150 compounds have been isolated and identified from V. paradoxa, of which triterpenoids, flavonoids and phenolic acids constitute the major active constituents. Others are lignans, coumarins, jasmonate derivatives, cerebroside, ester, ketone, acids, sugars, and essential oils. Although most of the reported compounds have been isolated from the methanol nutshell and the seed kernel, no study has documented the phytochemicals isolated from the fruits. Thus, the chemical studies on the fruits of this plant are needed. The isolated compounds have been shown to exhibit pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-trypanosomal, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, insecticidal, antibacterial, anticancer and melanogenesis-inhibitory. Mechanism of actions of some of these activities have been proposed for the extracts and the compounds. The modes of action of anticancer and melanogenesis-inhibitory activity involve the induction of apoptosis by cell death, suppression of proliferation of cancer cells, and regulation of differentiation and development of melanocytes, TYRP-1 and 2. Mechanism of action for anti-diabetic activity is thought to be by the inhibition of α-glucosidase, h-TNAP, and h-IAP, while antioxidant activity is by proton donation. Mechanisms of action of anti-inflammatory activity is by the suppression of the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukins, and tumour necrosis factors. Antibacterial activity is believed to be through the reversal of MRSA phenotype. However, modes of actions of other pharmacological activities have not been fully studied, including antiviral, antifungal, anthelmintic, insecticidal, antiplasmodial and antiepileptic activities.

The seeds and fruits of V. paradoxa are edible. However, the safety and toxicity of other parts used in traditional medicine remain unclear as shown by various studies in this review. Therefore, there is a need for further research to generate more data concerning the toxicology of V. paradoxa and the isolated compounds in order to have sufficient scientific facts relating to its safety for human consumption. The plant could serve as, once scientifically proven safe, a sustainable and cheap source of new compounds for the development and design of novel pipelines of pharmacological products for human use. V. paradoxa, to the best of our knowledge, has not be included in any of the available pharmacopeia we searched. However, we found V. paradoxa-based cosmetic products in the literature.

Funding

This work was supported financially by the DST-NRF-TWAS fellowship (Ref: Grant Number 116110).

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Olusesan Ojo: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - original draft. Micheal H.K. Kengne: Methodology, Writing - review & editing. Marthe C. Fotsing: Methodology, Writing - review & editing. Edwin M. Mmutlane: Writing - review & editing, Supervision. Derek T. Ndinteh: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing - review & editing, Funding acquisition.

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful to the National Research Foundation, South Africa, and The World Academy of Science (TWAS), Italy for providing research fund for this work.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and other potential applications of Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. (Sapotaceae): A review

Abstract

Keywords

Vitellaria paradoxa

Sapotaceae

African traditional medicine

Pharmacological activities

Phytoconstituents

Nanoparticles

Abbreviations

1 Introduction

2 Review methodology

3 Botanical description of V. paradoxa

4 Traditional clinical uses of V. paradoxa

5 Phytochemistry of V. paradoxa

5.1 Flavonoids and phenolics

5.2 Triterpenoids and steroids

5.3 Essential oils/volatile compounds

5.4 The other constituents

6 Pharmacology of V. paradoxa

6.1 Anticancer and melanogenesis-inhibitory activity

6.2 Antibacterial activity

6.3 Antiprotozoal activity

6.4 Antioxidant activity

6.5 Anti-inflammatory activity

6.6 Anti-diabetic activity

6.7 Anti-diarrhoeal activity

6.8 Antifungal and antiviral activity

6.9 Other pharmacological activities

6.10 Nanoparticles synthesis using V. paradoxa extracts and their applications

6.11 Clinical studies

7 Toxicology

8 Conclusions and future perspectives

Funding

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Acknowledgement

Declaration of Competing Interest

References

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