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Review article
03 2023
:16;
104541
doi:
10.1016/j.arabjc.2023.104541

The medicinal Umbelliferae plant Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.): Cultivation, traditional uses, phytopharmacological properties, and application in animal husbandry

, , , , ,
a Department of Biology, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia
b Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia

⁎Corresponding author at: Department of Biology, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Kampus ITS Sukolilo, 60111 Surabaya, Indonesia. nuruljadid@bio.its.ac.id (Nurul Jadid)

Received: , Accepted: ,
© The Author(s) 2023
Disclaimer:
This article was originally published by Elsevier and was migrated to Scientific Scholar after the change of Publisher.

Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.

Abstract

Foeniculum vulgare Mill., commonly called fennel is one of the most popular perennial herbaceous plants used as herbal medicine and spices worldwide. It belongs to the family Umbelliferae or Apiaceae and is characterized by a distinct floral arrangement with an umbrella-like shape. In addition to other well-known Umbelliferae plants, such as carrot, celery, and angelica, fennel has been utilized ethnobotanically to cure various ailments, including gastrointestinal issues, hormonal disorders, reproductive, and respiratory diseases. This review aims to update the information on conventional usage, cultivation, phytopharmacological properties, and other applications of F. vulgare Mill. in animal husbandry. Ethnobotanical studies have shown its medicinal uses worldwide; some tribes have reported its medicinal uses and how they use different parts of the plant. Alkaloids, essential oils, phenols, fatty acids, and amino acids are examples of natural phytochemicals that have been characterized and biologically tested for their medicinal potential. Fennel has been used to treat ten categories of diseases over the last two decades. Pharmacological studies revealed that the Umbelliferae plant has antiviral, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-anxiety, gastro-protective, estrogenic-like, cardiovascular, lipid, anti-mutagenic, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer activity, hepatoprotective, and memory-protective properties. Fennel extract is used as a potential phytogenic agent to enhance the productivity and quality of animal husbandry. Finally, the present study may provide up-to-date information on the medicinal application of F. vulgare from ethnobotanical and phytopharmacological perspectives and could be further explored to provide a broader benefit to humankind.

Keywords

Ethnobotany
Foeniculum vulgare
Health
Herbal medicine
Natural compounds
Traditional uses
1

1 Introduction

Medicinal plants contribute significantly to human civilization through their biological functions that protect people from sickness. One example among common plant families that have been previously reported to be used in human health is Apiaceae or Umbelliferae. It comprises a vast group of plants, including vegetables, spices, and herbal plants (Ferrie and Caswell, 2016). Their utilization is also diverse, not only for particular medicinal purposes but also as flavors, liqueurs, and confectionery. Although members of this plant family are found worldwide, almost all Umbelliferae plants are originally from Mediterranean countries (Shelef and HERBS, 2003). An important member of the Umbelliferae family is Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Like other members of the Umbelliferae family, F. vulgare is thought to be endemic to the Mediterranean area (Rather et al., 2016) and has spread worldwide, including Asia, Africa, America, Europe, and Oceania (Khammassi et al., 2018; Weiping and Baokang, 2011). Therefore, vernacular names have been documented in many countries. Some of them are sweet fennel (English), fenouille (French), adas (Indonesian), hui xiang (Chinese), phak chi (Thai), venkel (Dutch), bisbas (Arabic), bitterfenchel (Germany), bari saunf (Indian), and sohoehyang (Korean).

Indonesia is an archipelago with 17,000 islands and more than 1,000 tribes. It is a tropical country with diverse ecosystems. In addition, it is home to almost 30,000 medicinal plants, including F. vulgare. Fennel possesses phytopharmacological components that are useful in healing various diseases. These phytopharmacological components have been reported to be partly found in roots, stems, leaves, seeds, flowers, and fruits. However, different modes of preparations for a specific medicinal healing process have been documented in the ethnobotanical literature. This mode of preparation is usually transferred from one generation to another through oral traditions or daily practice/rituals. In addition, this mode of preparation is sometimes region-specific (Guarrera and Savo, 2013). Several studies have shown that F. vulgare can effectively prevent and control many bacterial, fungal, viral, mycobacterial, and protozoan infections (Badgujar et al., 2014; Dua et al., 2013; Kaur and Arora, 2008). Moreover, it also has anti-tumor and chemopreventive, antioxidant, cytoprotective, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, and estrogenic-like effects (Chang et al., 2016; Badgujar et al., 2014; El-Soud et al., 2011; Gulfraz et al., 2008).

Fennel is also characterized by its main essential oil component, detected using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). These include trans-anethole, estragole, and 28 other chemical components (Diao et al., 2014). In addition, fennel can be consumed directly in raw forms, such as snacks or salads, cooked and baked in a variety of cuisines. Additionally, fennel may also be used to season cheese, seafood, bread or toast, alcohol beverages, desserts, and vegetables (Khammassi et al., 2018). In Italy, fennel pollen is also a common ingredient, although it is very expensive (Kimberly and Jazmine, 2013; Malhotra, 2012).

Metabolite identification and the pharmacological use of fennel constituents still attract many researchers worldwide. Some literature reviews gathered information on fennel's therapeutic and phytochemical content (Kooti et al., 2015; Rather et al., 2016). However, these previous review articles need more information regarding the ethnobotanical use of fennel within society. Traditional people have also used fennel for other purposes, including controlling animal health (Mwale et al., 2006). None of the earlier review articles include the application of fennel in the veterinary domain. Therefore, it is worth noting that a study on ethnobotany is also essential in understanding and exploring fennel's human and veterinary pharmacology potential.

On the other hand, reviews describing fennel cultivation are still limited. High demand for industrial purposes poses a need for more fennel material. Traditionally, this herbal or aromatic plant is propagated through its seeds. However, this propagation system also possesses limitations. Low seed viability and genetic inconsistency of the plant quality are considered significant problems (Mor et al., 2009). Plant tissue culture rises as a good alternative for fennel propagation. It offers rapid and efficient propagation of fennel (Dwivedi et al., 2020). Taken together, providing comprehensive information covering data from botanical characteristics to the broad range of fennel applications and functions is necessarily needed. This present review attempts to update and complete the information on the botanical, cultivation, traditional use, phytochemicals, phytopharmacological properties, and other functions of F. vulgare Mill. on animal husbandry.

2

2 Botanical aspect and cultivation of Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Foeniculum is classified botanically into two sub-species: piperitum and vulgare. According to the literature, F. vulgare is categorized into two types of varieties: sweet fennel or var. dulce and bitter fennel or var. vulgare (Coşge et al., 2008; Khammassi et al., 2018). However, it has been reported that fennel consists of three varieties, and they include var. Piperium (cria) Cout. (bitter fennel), var. dulce DC Batt. Et Trab (sweet fennel) and var. azoricum Thell. (Florence fennel, finocchio, or Italian fennel) (Seidemann, 2005). Each variety has its own specific use. Bitter fennel is known for its fruits and essential oils. The leaves of Florence fennel are usually used for food preparation and eaten as vegetables. Similar to the Florence fennel, sweet fennel is frequently cultivated for its fruits, expanded leaf base, and fruit-derived essential oils.

Fennel is a tropical herb that has been used and cultivated for centuries. The plant is characterized by many branches, soft leaves, and hairy-like foliage. It may reach a height of 2 m, and the foliage consists of 3–4 pinnate leaves. In addition, it has a slippery green stem and small yellow flowers. The fruit is elongated, and the seeds are greenish-yellow. They reproduce using their seeds or vegetative multiplication using their root fragments (Badgujar et al., 2014). Several studies have described this species as a perennial herb; however, some researchers have classified fennel as an annual or a biennial plant. Fennel seems to have a typical annual plant characteristic. When the plant enters its flowering and then fructification time, it gradually senesces and dies. Interestingly, a new bud will grow on the basal end of the stem after cutting, making it possible to cultivate fennel annually or polyannually. However, a previous study showed that the yield might differ between the old plant and the new fennel that grew after cutting (Carrubba et al., 2003).

Fennel is commonly cultivated in tropical and temperate regions. To some extent, this herbaceous plant is grown in semi-arid or arid environments (Agarwal et al., 2018). The herb is cultivated using seeds, and normally, germination takes approximately 7–14 days. Heidari et al. (2014) showed that temperature had a significant effect on germination. In addition, other factors, including genotype, physiology, and environmental stress, influence the seed germination of this medicinal plant. With regard to cultivation, the nutritional requirement of fennel is dependent on the soil condition of the region. In addition, there is an increased demand for pesticide-free and chemical-fertilizer-free fennel (Malhotra and Vashishtha, 2008). Moreover, some studies have reported that environmental and agricultural practices may have an impact on fennel productivity or yield and quality (Díaz-Maroto et al., 2006; Ozcan et al., 2006). Different phytochemical and antioxidant properties of essential oils produced from some organic variety of fennel in Egypt have also been identified (Shahat et al., 2011).

Recent developments in agricultural systems have tended towards organic farming models. The negative impact of pesticides and chemical fertilizers on the environmental damage and human or animal health is the main reason for the development of green agriculture. However, high crop productivity and quality still need to be considered (Pretty and Bharucha, 2014). Agricultural systems, including intercropping, which takes advantage of two plant species with different characteristics, might be used to organically reduce weeds and pests (Poggio, 2005). Insect management using intercropping systems that consist of both medicinal and aromatic plants, has also been reported previously. F. vulgare Mill. has been used as an intercrop to reduce aphid populations in mustard (Brassica juncea L.) (Singh and Kothari, 1997). In addition, intercropping of fennel and dill (Anethum graveolens L.) increased grain and biomass yields. However, a higher proportion of fennel in this system should be considered (Carrubba et al., 2008). Another research discovered that the intercropping of fennel with colored cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) resulted in a significant reduction in fennel aphids (Hydaphis foeniculi (Pass.)) (Fernandes et al., 2013).

An increase in fennel demand in the market has improved its cultivation, and the plant has become critically important. Agricultural systems, including methods to improve soil fertility in marginal areas, need to be continuously developed. The selection of genetically good quality fennel also determines biomass yield and essential content. The application of phosphorous (P) fertilizer is widely used by farmers to improve soil nutrients, as P is an essential macronutrient for plant development. However, this may be costly and would have a negative impact on the environment. The use of phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms as organic fertilizers is an alternative method to improve P availability. Mishra et al. (2016) showed that phosphate-solubilizing bacteria not only increase seed yield but also enhance essential oil content. Crop propagation based on cross-pollination or allogamy could increase heterozygosity among populations and decrease the quality and performance of the plants. Therefore, many attempts have been made to solve the problem of fennel propagation while maintaining its quality. Micropropagation or in vitro plant culture has been applied to preserve, improve, and produce secondary metabolites of fennel. In vitro propagation using shoots, calluses, somatic embryogenesis, and inflorescences and the optimization of culture medium using a combination of plant growth regulators (PGRs) have been applied to accelerate plant regeneration (Table 1).

Table 1 Micropropagation of F. vulgare using different growth media and plant growth regulators.
No Explant Medium supplemented with PGRs Other additives Type of Culture References
1 Buds MS with 0.01 mg/l IAA + 1 mg/l BA 3 % Glucose Bud culture Garcia-Rodriguez et al. (1978)
2 Buds MS with 0.1 mg/l NAA + 0.1 mg/l BA 3 % Glucose Bud culture Paupardin et al. (1980)
3 Buds 0.5 MS with 0.1 mg/l NAA + 0.1 mg/l BA 2 % Glucose, 1 mg/l thiamine, 0.5 Ca pantothenate, 0.1 biotin, 100 mg/l meso-inosit, 0.1 mg/l riboflavine, 1 mg/l nicotinic acid, 0.01 folic acid Bud culture Badoc (1982)
4 Apical buds BM with 0.1 IAA + 0.1 mg/l BA 2 % Sucrose, MS vitamins, 0.1 biotin, 0.1 folic acid Bud culture Du Manoir et al. (1985)
5 Hypocotyls MS liquid with 1 mg/l 2,4-D Cell suspension Umetsu et al. (1995)
6 Hypocotyls MS with 2.6 µM NAA + 2.3 µM KIN 3 % Sucrose Callus and shoot regeneration Anzidei et al. (2000); Bennici et al. (2004)
7 Callus generated from hypocotyls MS with 3.3 µM GA3 3 % Sucrose Somatic embryo Anzidei et al. (2000)
8 Petioles LS with 10¯6 M 2,4-D + 10-6 M KIN 0.35–0.65 M Glucose Cell suspension and protoplast culture Miura and Tabata (1986)
9 Immature inflorescenses MS with 4.25 µM BA + 4 µM NOA 3 % Sucrose, Embryogenic callus Fiore et al. (2012)
10 Stem or petiole pieces MS with 1 mg/l 2,4-D + 0.3 mg/l KIN Thiamine-HCl, myo-inositol, 3 % glucose Callus and cell suspensions Hunault (1984)
11 Embryo B5 with 100 mg/l Cefotaxime + 1 mg/l BAP 30 g/l sucrose, vitamins Shoot proliferation Shahi et al. (2017)
12 Stem MS with 0.88 µM 2,4-D 3 % Sucrose Callus induction Anzidei et al. (1996)
13 Cotyledonary node MS with 1 mg/l BAP 29.92 µM of ZnSO4 Shoot multiplication Dwivedi et al. (2020)

Note: 2,4-D, 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; BM, Basal medium; BA, Benzyladenine; MS, Murashige and Skoog; IAA, Indole-3-acetic acid; BAP, 6-Benzylaminopurine; KIN, Kinetin; LS, Linsmaier-Skoog; NOA, β-Naphthoxyacetic acid.

3

3 Traditional and medicinal use of Foeniculum vulgare

Indonesia is an Asian country with a tropical climate, mega-biodiversity, ethnicity, rituals, local languages, ​​and diverse local medicine. The country is very rich in natural resources that have not been explored and are well-documented (Jadid et al., 2020). One example is the Tengger tribe, which applies local wisdom in their daily lives, including knowledge about how to deal with diseases and interact with natural resources. Local knowledge of medicinal plants can be obtained through ethnobotany, and in this case, the ethnobotany of fennel is discussed. Fennel possesses ethnobotanical usage, phytochemical content, pharmacological, and biological properties. We collected ethnobotanical data for two previous decades. The data showed that F. vulgare has been used in a broad range of traditional medicinal treatments. We clustered the diseases that have been treated using different organs of F. vulgare into 10 categories. These categories included dermatological problems; respiratory (ear, nose, mouth/dental, and throat) issues; internal medical diseases; urogenital and gynecological problems; eye diseases; gastrointestinal disorders; musculoskeletal and disorders of the connective tissue; parasitic and contagious diseases; nervous system disorders; and others (Table 2). Diseases vary, ranging from minor illnesses (such as coughs, colds, and sores) to various very complicated diseases (for example, kidney disease and cancer).

Table 2 Ethnobotanical uses of F. vulgare in medical treatments in some regions worldwide.
No Disease Categories Specified disease name Plant part used Mode of preparation Localities References
1 Dermatological diseases Urticaria/hives Leaves Decoction, Pounded Probolinggo, East Java, Indonesia Jadid et al. (2020)
Hair problems Fresh fruits and shoots Decoction, external usage Middle Navarra Cavero et al. (2011)
Seeds Decoction, oral/topical infusion Tiaret region, Northwest of Algeria Djahafi et al. (2021)
Eczema Fruits and first leaves Infusion Turkey Alan et al (2021); Fakir et al. (2009)
2 Respiratory-nose, ear, oral/dental, throat problems Cough Leaves Decoction Probolinggo, East Java, Indonesia Jadid et al. (2020)
Whole plant Oral infusion Guerrero, Mexico Juárez-Vázquez et al. (2013)
Whole plant Decoction Southern Spain Benítez et al. (2010)
Whole plant – Western cape of South Africa Aston Philander (2011)
Roots, seeds Decoction Basilicata, Italy Guarrera et al. (2005)
Fruits and floral tops Decoction, internal usage/inhalation Campania, Southern Italy Savo et al. (2011)
Fruits Infusion Turkey Fakir et al. (2009)
Fruits Pills, powders, oiling agent, stewing granules, and ointment India Li et al. (2022)
Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Tablets and granules China Li et al. (2022)
Leaves Fresh leaves are directly chewed to relieve cough Shishi Koh Valley, Chitral, Pakistan Wali et al. (2021)
Seeds Decoction, seeds are boiled and mixed with 2–3 spoons of sugar. The mixture is used at night for the treatment of cough Shishi Koh Valley, Chitral, Pakistan Wali et al. (2021)
Seeds Decoction Bahawalpur, Pakistan Afzal et al. (2021)
Seeds Infusion Calabria, Southern Italy Mattalia et al. (2020)
Seeds, leaves, and leaflets Decoction, intenal usage Western Aegean Region, Turkey Güler et al. (2020)
Bronchitis Fruits Infusion Turkey Fakir et al. (2009)
Seeds The seeds are fried in butter and by addition of a little bit flour and water; a soup is made which is used against bronchitis Shishi Koh Valley, Chitral, Pakistan Wali et al. (2021)
Toothache Leaves A few leaves are chewed South Africa Van Wyk (2008)
Leaves Fresh leaves are directly chewed to relieve toothache Shishi Koh Valley, Chitral, Pakistan Wali et al. (2021); Shah et al. (2016)
Fruits Fruits are smoked and used to relieve toothache Cava de' Tirreni area, Southern Italy Mautone et al. (2019)
Mouth ulcers Tender or delicate green leaves Chowed down and clamped on an ulcer Basilicata, Italy Guarrera et al. (2005)
Gum disorders Fruits and seeds Used as a mouthwash Central Serbia Jarić et al. (2007)
Leaves and seeds Decoction, oral administration, used as a mouthwash Casablanca, Morocco Kachmar et al. (2021); Zougagh et al. (2019)
Seeds Employed as mouthwash Calabria, Southern Italy Mattalia et al. (2020)
Cold Roots, seeds Decoction Basilicata, Italy Guarrera et al. (2005)
Fruits and floral tops Decoction, internal usage/inhalation Campania, Southern Italy Savo et al. (2011)
Seeds Decoction Bahawalpur, Pakistan Afzal et al. (2021)
Gingival wound Fruits Paste Uttarakhand, India Bhat et al. (2012)
Entire plant organs Decoction Andalusia, Spain Benítez et al. (2010)
Asthma Roots Decoction, oral infusion Northeastern Marocco Kachmar et al. (2021)
Seeds Decoction, oral administration Northern Morocco Redouan et al. (2020)
Tracheitis Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Tablets and granules China Li et al. (2022)
Unspecified respiratory disorders Leaves, stems, and flowers Powder, extract, paste, ash Bahawalpur, Pakistan Afzal et al. (2021)
3 Internal medical diseases Hypertension Leaves Directly chewed North-Eastern Majorcan area Calvo et al. (2011)
Fever Leaves Oral infusion South Africa Lewu and Afolayan (2009)
Fruits, roots, and seeds Decoction China Li et al. (2022)
Cancer Leaves and flower Oral infusion Loja, Ecuador Tene et al. (2007)
Abdominal pains Whole plant Decoction, internal usage Campania, Southern Italy Savo et al. (2011)
Leaves and seeds Infusion Northern Badia, Jordan Aburjai et al. (2007)
Leaves Paste Manisa, Turkey Bulut and Tuzlaci (2013)
Whole plant Oral infusion Guerrero, Mexico Juárez-Vázquez et al. (2013)
Fruits Fresh or boiled/infusion/decoction, internal usage Middle Navarra Cavero et al. (2011)
Seeds Decoction Liguria, Italy Cornara et al. (2009)
Seeds, leaves, and stems Infusion, directly consumed North Iran Ghorbani (2005)
Aerial parts, fruits, seeds Infusion Komen and Izola, Slovenia Vitasović-Kosić et al. (2021)
Seeds Decoction Liguria, Italy Cornara et al. (2009)
Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Powders, pills, tablets, and granules China Li et al. (2022)
Seeds Decoction, seeds are boiled and mixed with 2–3 spoons of sugar. The mixture is used at night for the treatment of abdominal pain Shishi Koh Valley, Chitral, Pakistan Wali et al. (2021); Shah et al. (2016)
Whole plant Macerated, oral administration Fangoga area, Sennar State, Sudan Ahmed et al. (2020)
Seeds Infusion Calabria, Southern Italy Mattalia et al. (2020)
Seeds and roots Decoction, oral administration Northern Morocco Redouan et al. (2020); Haouari et al. (2018)
Bulbs Raw or infusion Bordj Bou Arreridj, Northeast Algeria Miara et al. (2019)
Colic Leaves and fruits Infusion Brazil de Albuquerque et al. (2007)
Fruits Pills, powders, oiling agent, stewing granules, and ointment India Li et al. (2022)
Seeds Infusion Marche region, Central Italy Lucchetti et al. (2019)
Nausea and vomiting Fruits Simple powder North-Eastern Majorcan area Carrió and Vallès (2012)
Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Tablets and granules China Li et al. (2022)
Tachycardia Fruits Infusion Turkey Fakir et al. (2009)
Anaemia Seeds Decoction, oral/topical infusion Tiaret region, North west of Algeria Djahafi et al. (2021)
Seeds Infusion Marche region, Central Italy Lucchetti et al. (2019)
Obesity Seeds Decoction, oral/topical infusion Tiaret region, North west of Algeria Djahafi et al. (2021)
Seeds Infusion to lose weight Calabria, Southern Italy Mattalia et al. (2020)
Dizziness Fruits, roots, and seeds Decoction China Li et al. (2022)
Hiccup Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Tablets and granules China Li et al. (2022)
Anorexia Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Powders, pills, tablets and granules China Li et al. (2022)
Fruits Pills, powders, oiling agent, stewing granules, and ointment India Li et al. (2022)
Diabetes Seeds Decoction Morocco Bouyahya et al. (2021)
Aerial parts Infusion Croatia Končić and Bljajić (2019)
Headache Seeds Infusion Calabria, Southern Italy Mattalia et al. (2020)
Fresh leaves Decoction made with Matricaria chamomilla heads Cava de' Tirreni area, Southern Italy Mautone et al. (2019)
Dysphagia Seeds Decoction, oral administration Northern Morocco Redouan et al. (2020)
4 Urogenital, obstetry and

gynecological		 Leucorrhoea Seeds Powdered with other recipes (Papaver somniferum and Coriander sativum) Rajasthan, India Jain et al. (2007)
Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Tablets and granules China Li et al. (2022)
Unspecified kidney diseases Aerial parts Infusion Alto, Bolivia Macía et al. (2005)
Seeds Decoction Gujranwala, Pakistan Mahmood et al. (2013)
Diuretic Tender parts Raw or boiled Rome, Italy Guarrera and Savo (2013)
Whole plant – South Africa Aston Philander (2011)
Seeds Decoction South-Europe Jarić et al. (2011)
Seeds, roots, and fresh leaves Decoction Northern Portugal, Miami, Florida, USA Neves et al. (2009); Halberstein (2012)
Leaves Oral infusion South Africa Lewu and Afolayan (2009)
Roots Infusion Marche region, Central Italy Lucchetti et al. (2019)
Amenorrhoea and oligomenorrhoea Aerial parts Freshly consumed with carrot Rome, Italy Guarrera and Savo (2013)
Fruits Simple powder Northeastern Majorcan area Carrió and Vallès (2012)
Seeds – Haryana, India Kumar et al. (2012)
Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Tablets and granules China Li et al. (2022)
Roots Decoction, oral administration Italy Motti et al. (2019)
Milk stimulant in pregnant women (Galactagogue) Leaves Oral infusion South Africa Lewu and Afolayan (2009)
Fruits As condiment or chewed Rome, Italy Guarrera and Savo (2013)
Fruits Simple powder Northeastern Majorcan area Carrió and Vallès (2012)
Aerial parts Infusion Alto, Bolivia Macía et al. (2005)
Fruits Infusion Turkey Fakir et al. (2009)
Seeds, roots, leaves, and aerial parts Raw or decoction, oral administration Italy Motti et al. (2019); Motti and Motti (2017)
Seeds Infusion Marche region, Central Italy Lucchetti et al. (2019)
Problem of repeated abortions Seeds Powdered with other recipes (Trapa natans) Rajasthan, India Jain et al. (2007)
Kidney stones Leaves and seeds Decoction, infusion, or made into herbal tea North-Eastern Morocco Bencheikh et al. (2021)
Dysmenorrhoea Fruits, roots, and seeds Decoction, powders, and pills China Li et al. (2022)
Seeds Decoction, administered orally Italy Motti et al. (2019); Fortini et al. (2016)
Urinary calculi Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Tablets and granules China Li et al. (2022)
5 Eye diseases Eye Irritation Aerial parts Heated and put in the eyes, external usage Balikesir, Turkey Polat and Satıl (2012)
Seeds, roots, and leaves – Northern Portugal Neves et al. (2009)
Seeds Infusion, directly consumed Gujranwala, Pakistan Mahmood et al. (2013)
Leaves and/or fruits Eye drops South Africa Van Wyk (2008)
Conjunctivitis Leaves and flowers Aqueous infusion, drink Loja, Ecuador Tene et al. (2007)
6 Gastrointestinal disorders Diarrhea Seeds, roots, and fresh leaves – Northern Portugal Neves et al. (2009)
Seeds Paste and mixed with Hemidesmus indicus Bhandara, Maharashtra, India Gupta et al. (2010)
Bulbs Raw or infusion Bordj Bou Arreridj, Northeast Algeria Miara et al. (2019)
Constipation Seed of fennel Decoction South Europe Jarić et al. (2011)
Combined with sugar Jammu and Kashmir, India Kumar et al. (2009)
Infusion or directly consumed Gujranwala, Pakistan Mahmood et al. (2013)
Decoction, oral/topical infusion Tiaret region, North west of Algeria Djahafi et al. (2021)
Gastritis Leaves and flowers Aqueous infusion, drink Loja, Ecuador Tene et al. (2007)
Stomach distension Leaves Honey-sweetened decoction Latium, Central Italy Guarrera et al. (2005)
Fruits, roots, and seeds Decoction, powders, and pills China Li et al. (2022)
Gastralgia Leaves Decoction Southern Spain Benítez et al. (2010)
Dyspepsia Fruits Infusion Turkey Fakir et al. (2009)
Fruits Pills, powders, oiling agent, stewing granules, and ointment India Li et al. (2022)
Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Tablets and granules China Li et al. (2022)
Seeds Decoction, orally administered Northern part of Morocco Redouan et al. (2020); Haouari et al. (2018)
Irritable bowel syndrome Leaves and seeds Infusion Northern Badia, Jordan Alzweiri et al. (2011)
Liver pain Seeds – Pernambuco, Northeast Brazil de Albuquerque et al. (2007)
Other digestive system problems Fruits Decoction Basilicata, Italy Guarrera et al. (2005)
Seeds Decoction, oral administration Balikesir, Turkey Polat and Satıl (2012)
Whole plant – Western region of South Africa Aston Philander (2011)
Fruits Powder for digestive ailments Middle, Western, and Southern part of Bosnia Šarić-Kundalić et al. (2010)
Seeds Decoction South Europe Jarić et al. (2011)
Seeds, roots, and fresh leaves – Northern region of Portugal. Neves et al. (2009)
Seeds Decoction South region of Spain Benítez et al. (2010)
Fruits and floral tops Decoction, internal usage Campania, Southern Italy Savo et al. (2011)
Shoots, leaves, and stems Fresh or boiled/infusion/decoction, internal usage Middle Navarra Cavero et al. (2011)
Seeds Infusion Marche region, Central Italy Lucchetti et al. (2019)
Flatulence Leaves and fruits Infusion Brazil de Albuquerque et al. (2007)
Leaves and seeds Infusion Northern part of Jordan Mitra and Mukherjee (2010)
Fresh fruits Decoction North Bengal, India Alzweiri et al. (2011)
Tender parts Raw or boiled Rome, Italy Guarrera and Savo (2013)
Whole plant – Western area of South Africa Aston Philander (2011)
Seeds Decoction Southern region of Europe Jarić et al. (2011)
Seeds, leaves, and stems Infusion or directly consumed North Iran Ghorbani (2005)
Shoots, leaves, and stems Fresh or boiled/infusion/decoction, internal usage Middle Navarra Cavero et al. (2011)
Leaves and/or fruits – South Africa Van Wyk (2008)
Seeds Decoction, oral/topical infusion Tiaret region, Northwestern of Algeria Djahafi et al. (2021)
Aerial parts, fruits, seeds Infusion Komen and Izola, Slovenia Vitasović-Kosić et al. (2021)
Aerial parts (flowers, leaves, shoots), and seeds Infusion Liguria, Italy Cornara et al. (2009)
Seeds Decoction, oral administration Northern part of Morocco Redouan et al. (2020)
Fresh leaves Infusion Cava de' Tirreni area, Southern Italy Mautone et al. (2019)
Bulbs Raw or infusion Bordj Bou Arreridj, Northeast Algeria Miara et al. (2019)
Hernia Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Powders, pills, tablets, and granules China Li et al. (2022)
7 Muskuloskeletal system and connective tissue disorders Arthritis Leaves Oral infusion South Africa country Lewu and Afolayan (2009)
Whole plant Macerated, oral administration Fangoga area, Sennar State, Sudan Ahmed et al. (2020)
Rheumatism Roots Decoction, oral infusion Northeastern part of Marocco Kachmar et al. (2021)
Neck pain Fruits, roots, and seeds Decoction China Li et al. (2022)
Backache Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Tablets and granules China Li et al. (2022)
Low back pain Seeds Fried in butter Shishi Koh Valley, Chitral, Pakistan Wali et al. (2021); Shah et al. (2016)
8 Infectious and parasitic disease Dysentery Fruits Pills, powders, oiling agent, stewing granules, and ointment India Li et al. (2022)
Rabies Fruits, leaves, roots, and root barks Tablets and granules China Li et al. (2022)
9 Nervous system disease Epilepsy Fruits, roots, and seeds Decoction China Li et al. (2022)
10 Others Motion sickness Leaves Squeezed Probolinggo, East Java, Indonesia Jadid et al. (2020)
Insomnia Leaves Infusion Brazil Oliveira et al. (2012)
Refreshing Roots/whole plant Decoction/crushed, internal usage Campania, Southern Italy Savo et al. (2011)
Hypnotic Seeds, leaves, and stems Infusion or directly consumed North Iran Ghorbani (2005)
Appetizer Delicate part of the plant Eaten fresh/raw Rome, Italy Guarrera and Savo (2013)
Mosquitocidal Roots Drinking as tea Somali Region, Ethiopia Mesfin et al. (2012)
Sedative for children Apical shoots – Liguria, Italy Cornara et al. (2009)
Apical shoots – Southern part of Punjab, Pakistan Jabbar et al. (2006)
Fat reduction Green fruits Chewed South Africa country Lewu and Afolayan (2009)
Anxiety Seeds Decoction, oral/topical infusion Tiaret region, Northwestern of Algeria Djahafi et al. (2021)
Poisoning Fruits Powders and pills China Li et al. (2022)

Fennel’s leaves, stem bark, roots, fruits, seeds, apical shoots, and whole aerial sections of the plant, have all been employed. Additionally, some modes of administration include decoction, oral infusion, inhalation, raw-eaten, and chewing, and plants could be administered as a paste, powdered, and squeezed form. Among these modes of administration decoction is the most utilized mode, and this the reports of previous studies. The decoction is mainly used because it is a simple, cheap, and “easy to handle” method.

F. vulgare is also used to treat approximately 68 specified diseases. Among these, we noted that most of the diseases treated by F. vulgare were internal medical diseases (15 diseases), followed by gastrointestinal disorders (11 diseases), respiratory-nose, ear, mouth/dental, throat issues (10 diseases), urogenital, obstetric and gynecological (9 diseases), musculoskeletal system and connective tissue disorders (5 diseases), dermatological diseases (3 diseases), and infectious or contagious and parasitic diseases (2 diseases). The nervous system diseases include only one type of disease: epilepsy. Moreover, diseases that are not covered by previous clusters belong to “others”. The latter include motion sickness, insomnia, refreshment agents, hypnotics, aperitifs, mosquitocides, sedatives for children, fat deduction, anxiety, and poisoning (Fig. 1). These records strongly support several previous studies demonstrating that many medicinal plants have been used to treat and cure internal medicinal diseases and gastrointestinal issues (Jadid et al., 2020; Wali et al., 2022).

Percentage of specified diseases treated using Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
Fig. 1
Percentage of specified diseases treated using Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

4

4 Phytochemical composition of fennel

Fennel is a plant rich in potassium, sodium, phosphorus, and calcium. Badgujar et al., (2014) reported, according to USDA data, that fennel is rich in vitamins and promotes health, and its nutrition is relatively essential to humans. Proximate analysis of F. vulgare, according to previous studies, showed that the organs of fennel have different nutritional values, and their leaves contain the highest moisture content. Carbohydrate (approximately 42.3 %) represents the most dominant macro-nutrients in all the organ parts of the plant; however, the protein constituent was reported to be less abundant, and it contains only 9.5 % in their stems and flowers (Badgujar et al., 2014; Rather et al., 2016).

Different phytochemical works have been carried out in order to isolate lipids, phenols, hydrocarbon-based compounds, volatile substances, and several other groups of specialized metabolites from each organ part of the fennel (Gross et al., 2009). These chemical components strongly support various pharmacological effects, such as antioxidants, anti-inflammatory properties, anti-microbial, and anti-viral effects. To extract the phytochemical constituents of the plant, several chemical solvents were utilized, including water, methanol, ethanol, acetone, hexane, and dichloromethane (Suppl 1).

Some scientific reports have discovered that the major phytochemical substances of fennel are volatile compounds and essential oils (Parejo et al., 2004). We grouped the metabolites derived from this plant into several classes (Suppl 1); they include terpenoid-derived molecules such as monoterpenes, diterpenes, and sesquiterpenes, and some major substances such as anethole (Díaz-Maroto et al., 2005) and estragole (Afifi et al., 2021) belong to some phenylpropanoid-derived substances found in this plant. It is worth noting that different stages of plant development might affect the quantity of these compounds. Mature organs have lower phytochemical concentrations than immature organs (Telci et al., 2009). The presence of phenolic and phenolic glycoside constituents also makes F. vulgare to be a phyto-antioxidant bio-resource. It contains 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid and quercetin glucoside. Some other substances have also been found in this plant but in small quantities (Suppl. 1).

5

5 Pharmacological properties

F. vulgare has been utilized globally for centuries by ancient societies (Table 2) to treat and cure medical ailments owing to the broad range of phytochemical compounds they contain (Zeller and Rychlik, 2006). Some pharmaceutical importance, such as anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-anxiety, gastro-protective, estrogenic, cardiovascular, lipid, antidiabetic, antimutagenic and chemopreventive, anti-cancer, hepato-protective, and memory-protective properties, in the plant have been recorded. Besides its medicinal uses, F. vulgare is also used in several other sectors such as animal husbandry.

5.1

5.1 Antifungal, antibaterial, and antiviral activities

F. vulgare is used to treat various ailments caused by bacterial, fungal, viral, and mycobacterial infections (Roby et al., 2013; Singh et al., 2006). Several studies have reported that fennel exhibits antimicrobial and antiviral properties through bioactive compounds such as fenchone, oleic acid, estragole, trans-anethole, scopoletin, and coumarin, which have antimicrobial activities (Kooti et al., 2015; Mota et al., 2015). A combination of herbal medicine consisting of F. vulgare and Nigella sativa displayed potent antifungal properties against Candida albicans (Naeini et al., 2017). According to Pecarski (2017), fennel showed antibacterial activity against Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus through the formation of imbibition and diameter zones, probably owing to the content of Geranyl diphosphate (GPP) derived monoterpenes (i.e: p-cymene, limonene, and α-pinene) in fennel fruit extract. Another study investigated the anti-bacterial activity of fennel extract on a nosocomial pathogen such as Acinetobacter baumannii. Their finding results revealed that fennel extract has an antibacterial effect on all the strains of the bacteria and can be used to control double bacterial antibiotic resistance (Jazani et al., 2009). A recent study showed that the combination of the essential oil of F. vulgare and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) increased the bacteriostatic activity of several bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter cloaceae, Staphylococcus aureus, and S. epidermidis (Qaralleh et al., 2022). Additionally, AgNPs was also strongly recommended for increasing the accumulation of specialized metabolite in the plant through in vitro culture (Rahmawati et al., 2022). Recently, Yoshino et al. (2022) stated that a fennel n-hexane extract has bactericidal action. They reported that a combination of fennel extract and petroselenic acid could be used for periodontitis treatment caused by Porphyromonas gingivalis.

In addition to its antimicrobial activities, fennel also exhibited anti-viral properties (Orhan et al., 2012). Its essential oils showed potent antiviral activities against HSV-1 herpes simplex virus and RNA-based influenza virus. Furthermore, another study also revealed the anti-viral effect of F. vulgare against hepatitis viruses (Ibrahim and Moussa, 2021). This antiviral activity is linked to the essential oils found in F. vulgare, and this has been corroborated by an in silico study, which showed the interaction of essential oils with some viral proteins, including Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) associated corona virus proteins (spike glycoprotein) (Saab et al., 2022). The antiviral compound in F. vulgare that function against covid-19, include anethole and limonene (Kulkarni et al., 2020).

5.2

5.2 Antioxidant activity

Antioxidants play a vital role in reducing radical damages, which may be detrimental to biological systems and may subsequently disturb human health. Many research have been undertaken to evaluate the antioxidant activities of fennel (Jadid et al., 2016), and fennel from different locations may exhibit distinct antioxidant activities (Faudale et al., 2008). For instance, a DPPH assay using the methanolic extract of fennel seed derived from several regions in Tunisia resulted in IC50 977.33 to 23.66 µg/mL. The essential oil extracted from marocain fennel using GC MS was predominantly monoterpene hydrocarbons (El Ouariachi et al., 2014).

DPPH assay is a potent tool for screening the potential antioxidant activity of plant-based compounds (Jadid et al., 2017). A good DPPH inhibition was demonstrated by fennel derived from Pakistan, with an IC50 value of 23.61–26.75 µg/mL (Anwar et al., 2009), and cirsiliol is the predominant phenolic compound found in the plant (Khammassi et al., 2022). The anti-oxidant properties of fennel seed extracts from Egypt and China have been documented to be robust yet possess distinct IC50 value (Ahmed et al., 2019). It has also been discovered that the anti-oxidant properties of wild and cultivated fennel vary. Conforti et al. (2006) demonstrated that the DPPH test revealed that the ethanolic extract of wild F. vulgare (IC50: 31 µg/mL) was greater than that of cultivated fennel (83 µg/mL). Besides the methanolic and ethanolic extracts of fennel seed, some reports showed similar results from other solvent extracts and fennel organs. For example, peroxidation assay showed that the acetone extract of fennel has a high percentage of free radical inhibition (Ruberto et al., 2000), whereas n-butanol extract from fennel fruit demonstrated modest antioxidant activities (De Marino et al., 2007). The overall results of antioxidant assay showed that fennel extract has the potential to be developed as a pharmaceutical agent with strong antioxidant activities.

5.3

5.3 Anti-inflammatory activity

Inflammation can be defined as the physiological and defensive responses of the body against pathogenic microbes or viruses. Several research have been undertaken to assess the impact of utilizing F. vulgare extract as an anti-inflammatory agent. Choi and Hwang (2004) revealed that the methanol extract of fennel fruit (200 mg/kg) demonstrated remarkable inflammatory inhibition, with an increase in several anti-oxidant enzymes, including catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD). In addition, the use of F. vulgare with other medicinal plants (Nigella sativa, Brassica nigra, Trigonella foenum-graceum demonstrated good anti-inflammatory activities owing to their phenols and flavonoid constituents (Gias et al., 2020). These constituents have been reported to have analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects; they show strong anti-inflammation by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis (Elizabeth et al., 2014). Inhibition of inflammation was also reported by Yang et al. (2015) that imperatorin, which is extracted from fennel, inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokines. In addition, Kooti et al., (2015) reported that the possible anti-inflammatory mechanism may be through the preventive effects of methanol extract on acute and subacute diseases and type 4 allergic reactions through the inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and 5-lipoxygenase; this report was corroborated by the report of Crescenzi et al. (2022), which showed that the quercetin glucoside in fennel is capable of inhibiting COX-2 (IC50 value 9.34), and COX-2 inhibition subsequently reduces prostaglandins, which are involved in inflammatory responses (Crescenzi et al., 2022).

5.4

5.4 Anti-anxiety and anti-depressant effects

Anxiety is a distressing sensation of worry and paranoia. Anxiety disorders are diagnosed when anxiousness becomes extreme. Fennel has traditionally been used as natural remedy to alleviate anxiety and psychiatric issues (Amaghnouje et al., 2020). Anxiolytic effect of an ethanolic extract of fennel fruit injected to experimental mice was observed to be comparable to 1 mg/kg diazepam (anti-anxiety medication as control) (Kishore et al., 2012). Another study showed that 250 and 500 mg/kg of methanolic fennel extract given orally to experimental mouse exhibited anti-depressant effect (Jamwal et al., 2013). Furthermore, a herbal medicine that contained 21–27 mg of fennel-derived anethole was reported to significantly improve depressed postmenopausal women (Ghazanfarpour et al., 2018). Similarly, Alvarado-García et al. (2022) showed that essential oil (mainly trans-anethole) derived from fennel seeds exhibited more effective anxiolytic activity than antidepressants. In contrast, the aerial part of the fennel extract demonstrated moderate anxiolytic activity.

5.5

5.5 Gastrointestinal protection

A previous ethnobotanical study showed that fennel fruit cures gastrointestinal disorders such as indigestion, flatulence, and diarrhea (Table 2) (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2010). Peptic ulcer, another gastrointestinal disorder, is considered a chronic disease and it occurs in the proximal duodenum and stomach: extract of F. vulgare has been proven to act as antiulcerogenic agent, and a pre-treatment using fennel extract showed strong inhibition of mucosal lesion induced by ethanol in the rat. The highest percentage of mucosal lesion inhibition was demonstrated by 300 mg/kg of fennel extract pre-treatment (Birdane et al., 2007). Another report showed that the extracts of polyherbs such as betel, clove, fennel, and black catechu have significant gastro-protective activity (Reddy et al., 2013). This was proven by an anti-ulcer protection test in mice ulcer induced by aspirin and ethanol. The result revealed that liquid extract of fennel (250 and 500 mg/kg) has gastro-protective activity, and ulcer and gastric lesions were successfully prevented by 65 and 75 %, respectively, compared to omeprazole drugs (98 %). Das et al. (2022) did a recent investigation which demonstrated that seed-derived fennel extract exhibited a protective function on transepithelial electrical resistance on T84 colonic cells. They reported that fennel extract reduces the activation of Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT), which strongly correlate with inflammatory responses. Interestingly, mice administered with fennel extract showed an increase in ulcer indications (Das et al., 2022).

5.6

5.6 Estrogenic-related activities

A reduced protein total content was detected in the testes and seminal vesicles of rats treated with acetone extract of fennel seeds. Interestingly, female rats demonstrated vaginal cornification and oestrus cycle after the treatment (Rahimi and Ardekani, 2013). Another study reported that F. vulgare was involved in the enhancement of milk secretion (galactogenic activity), facilitating birth and menstruation cycle induction (Albert-Puleo, 1980; Rather et al., 2016). Furthermore, some phyto-constitutents of fennel extract (dianethole, photoane, and diosgenin) were reported to be involved in prolactin secretion, which facilitate ovarian follicullogenesis effect in female mice (Khazaei et al., 2011).

5.7

5.7 Cardiovascular and lipid activity

Patients with the cardiovascular disorders often receive antithrombotic therapy. In vivo study of essential oil derived from fennel extract, especially anethole, was shown to possess antithrombotic activity. Fennel essential oil (30 mg/kg/day) given orally to mice treated with Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) for five days, demonstrated significant antithrombotic activity by exhibiting 70 % paralysis inhibition, and in vitro tests showed similar results. The essential oil from fennel and anethole, which can also be found in fennel, significantly inhibited platelet aggregation (Tognolini et al., 2007). In addition, studies on the anti-cholesterol and atherogenesis inhibition effects of methanol extract of fennel showed a significant reduction in plasma lipid levels. The anti-atherogenic effect can prevent atherogenic dyslipidemia (AD) and enhance blood circulation in the coronary arteries. Thus, the presence of hypolipidemic and anti-atherogenic activity in fennel extract can be used to control cardiovascular disorders (Oulmouden et al., 2014).

5.8

5.8 Anti-diabetic and anti-obesity activity

Fennel essential oil protect patient from hyperglycemia and pathological defects in diabetic mice through antioxidant effects and restoration of redox homeostasis. In vivo studies on hyperglycemia-induced rats showed that essential oil from fennel has significant anti-hyperglycemia activity. The corrected hyperglycemia status may correlate with an increase in glutathione peroxidase activity as antioxidant (El-Soud et al., 2011), and a recent study by Zolkepli et al. (2022) corroborated this finding. The encapsulated essential oil from fennel by nanoemulsion exhibited a considerable reduction in the blood glucose content (Zolkepli et al., 2022). The aqueous extract of fennel given to certain diabetic rats, influenced the reduction of blood glucose. The extract also exhibited a strong inhibitory concentration of 50 % radicals (at 43 ± 1.19 µg/ml) (El-Ouady et al., 2020). Furthermore, the combination of F. vulgare and black cumin (2.5 g each) on female patient food significantly affects the body mass index (BMI) and cholesterol level of the female patients (AbdElwahab et al., 2021).

5.9

5.9 Anti-mutagenic and anti-cancer activities

The potential antimutagenic and cancer chemopreventive effects of fennel have been elucidated in several studies. For example, the crude and fractioned extracts of fennel seed have been demonstrated to possess significant cytotoxic activity against breast cancer cell lines (Megeressa et al., 2020). In addition, in silico analysis of α-pinene and d-limonene through molecular docking showed strong binding energy (each represents −6 and −5.9 kcal/mol) to the breast cancer cell target (Kaur et al., 2022); however, it is important to note that the effect is apparently dependent on the cancer cell lines, because the crude extract of fennel did not show significant inhibition (Megeressa et al., 2020). Furthermore, potential anti-hepatocellular carcinoma was exhibited by the ethanol extract of fennel seed, which showed an inhibitory effect on hepatocellular carcinoma by binding with oncoprotein survivin (Ke et al., 2021).

The apoptotic activity of crude methanol and ethanol extract of F. vulgare leaves was examined in a cervical cancer cell line (HeLa). Apoptosis induction was indicated by fragmented DNA in the HeLa cell lines treated with methanol plant extract. Fragmented DNA was occured at different concentrations of plant samples (Devika and Mohandass, 2014).

5.10

5.10 Hepato-protective activity

Fennel plants have a protective effect on the liver. The active compound of fennel was tested to evaluate its impact on hepatoprotective activity through hyperglycemia-induced liver injury in rats. Some markers, which include serum aminotransferase such as ALT and AST were tested. Although these markers are supposed to increase following a liver injury, a study by Samadi-Noshahr et al. (2021) reported a lower ALT and AST levels. The 400 mg/kg of fennel extract was able to reduce lipid peroxidation. The hepatotoxicity induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCL4) in rats was inhibited by combining fennel oils with Anethum graveolens (Rabeh et al., 2014). It has been reported that treatments using combined A. graveolens and F. vulgare extracts increases enzymatic antioxidants (SOD). Moreover, a decrease in MDA level was detected, indicating that the extract successfully inhibited the formation of oxidative radicals following the induction of CCL4 (Rabeh et al., 2014). Furthermore, fennel essential oil has been proven to have a positive effect on the histopathological liver tissues of sodium valproat-induced hepatotoxicity in rats (Al-Amoudi, 2017). Wang et al. (2012) studied the effects of fennel on cytokines in mice with liver fibrosis; the findings revealed that lipid breakdown and inflammation were reduced in the fennel-treated rats.

5.11

5.11 Memory-protective activity

Fennel plants can be used to improve memory and intelligence (Kooti et al., 2015). Together with Origanum vulgare, F vulgare displayed an effective antioxidant activity related to learning and memory enhancement. A recent study by Ghaderi et al., (2020) demonstrated that animal in vivo experiments suggested potential property of water extract of O. vulgare to enhance memory in male rats. Joshi and Parle, (2006) investigated the effects of fennel extract as a neutropic factor and anti-acetylcholinesterase in amnesic mice. The results demonstrated that the activity of acetylcholinesterase was inhibited. Fennel, therefore, may be useful the treat cognitive disorders such as schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease.

6

6 Application of F. vulgare in animal husbandry

Numerous scientists have been interested in using natural remedies derived from plant as phytobiotics due its importance in improving animal health and performance. Essential oils contained in plants, such as sunflowers, alfalfa, and Moringa oleifera, have been proven to play important roles in increasing animal immunity, nutrient digestibility, reproductive function, and animal productivity (Alharthi et al., 2021; Khan et al., 2021; Ullah et al., 2022). Furthermore, Khan et al. (2022) recently reported the use of F. vulgare as an alternative to phytobiotics in animal husbandry.

The supplementation of broiler feedstock with fennel seeds enhanced feed consumption (Saleh et al., 2018), probably owing to the good palatability, odor, and antimicrobial effects of fennel seed, which might have also increased the digestion capacity of the broilers and led to their weight gain (Zahira et al., 2017). However, this effect may be different in other poultry species (Safaei-Cherehh et al., 2018), and it seems that the booster effect on feed consumption depended on the proportion of the bioactive constituents in the plant and its ratio within the animal meals. Similarly, fennel in the feed of Holstein calves increased their consumption rate (Kargar et al, 2021); for example, 0.4 and 0.8 % (dry matter basis) of fennel seed was observed to increase the body weight of Holstein calves (Saeedi et al., 2017), and 1.5 % of fennel powder increased the weight of experimental lambs than control lambs (Hajalizadeh et al., 2019). Furthermore, some essential oils from fennel (estragole, anethole, and fenchone) are thought to be responsible for changes in consumption behavior (Hajalizadeh et al., 2019).

The effects of fennel supplementation (50 mg/kg) on egg production have been reported; they include enhanced oviduct size, increased albumin production, and increased shell membrane strength in laying hens (Kazemi-Fard et al., 2013; Reza et al., 2018). Bollengier-Lee et al. (1998) showed that fennel extract increases egg yolk formation, and fennel seed plays a significant role in increasing ovary, egg duct, and oviduct of Japanese quail (Yazarlou et al., 2012). Similarly, the effect of fennel extract on human and animals fed fennel include increased potential to scavenge free radicals by enhancing the production of SOD, CAT, and glutathione peroxidase (Khan et al., 2022). Furthermore, animals fed diet containing fennel has been reported to show increased total protein, albumin, red blood cell, high-density lipoproteins (HDL), and haemaglobin (Mohammed and Abbas, 2009 (Safaei-Cherehh et al., 2018)).

7

7 Conclusion

Fennel (F. vulgare Mill.) has been recognized by the society as a traditional medicinal plant and serves as a potent phytopharmacological bioresources. Effective and efficient plant cultivation through in vitro culture is necessary to meet the high demand of the plant, and its sustainability in nature should be considered while maintaining its genetic stability. This study gathered information on plant in vitro culture techniques that have been performed and could be developed and used as a biosystem to boost the phytochemical content of plants in vitro. This study also offers details on the traditional uses of the plant to treat ailments worldwide. The traditional uses were classified into 10 categories, and they are closely linked to the phytochemical constituents of the plant, which has been biologically tested. The bioactive compounds and activities include antimicrobial and antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, gastro-protective, anti-anxiety, estrogenic-like activity, cardiovascular protection and lipid, anti-diabetic, anti-mutagenic, anti-cancer, hepatoprotective, and memory-protective activities. This study also demonstrated the phytogenic properties of the fennel to enhance the productivity and quality of animals in animal husbandry. However, further investigation and biological studies on the potential uses of fennel is still important, especially in terms of developing novel fennel bioactive-based drugs and other applications to provide beneficial impacts on humankind.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia for financially supporting this study through research grant no. 1374/PKS/ITS/2022. The authors are grateful for the support provided by members of the Laboratory of Plant Bioscience and Technology, Department of Biology, ITS.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Appendix A

Supplementary material

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2023.104541.

Appendix A

Supplementary material

The following are the Supplementary data to this article:

Supplementary data 1

Supplementary data 1


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