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Original article
13 (
12
); 8717-8722
doi:
10.1016/j.arabjc.2020.10.002

A novel study on synthesis of egg shell based activated carbon for degradation of methylene blue via photocatalysis

, , , , , ,
a Department of Chemistry, The University of Lahore, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
b Department of Physics, Nanjil Catholic College of Arts and Science, Kaliyakkavilai, Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, India
c Department of Physics, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Abishekapatti, Tirunelveli 627012, Tamil Nadu, India
d Department of Chemistry, Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad, 15320 Islamabad, Pakistan
e Department of Chemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Pakistan
f Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia

⁎Corresponding author. awaisahmed@gcuf.edu.pk (Awais Ahmad)

Received: , Accepted: ,
© The Author(s) 2020
Disclaimer:
This article was originally published by Elsevier and was migrated to Scientific Scholar after the change of Publisher.

Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.

Abstract

Abstract

Egg shell-based activated carbon was successfully synthesized by the simple chemical activation process. Orthophosphoric acid and sodium hydroxide used as an activation agent. XRD pattern reveals the hexagonal structure of activated carbon. The functional group presents in activated carbon was identified using FT-IR spectroscopy. SEM images show irregular shapes of carbon. The photocatalytic performance of investigated activated carbon by illuminating methylene blue dye under UV–Visible irradiations. Photocatalytic activity of activated carbon results maximum degradation efficiency of 83%. Adsorption efficiency have been increased with respect of time for degradation of dye. Free radicals and superoxide’s play a significant role is decolourization of methylene blue. Photocatalytic activity of activated carbon synthesized by Orthophosphoric acid results shows the high degradation efficiency when compared to NaOH.

Keywords

Activated carbon
Photocatalytic activity
Methylene blue
Hexagonal
1

1 Introduction

In recent years, nanotechnology is a tool which has increasingly become an important topics for researchers to develop new devices using the nanoparticles to design, characterization of nanosized materials such as metal/metal oxide and from preparation aspects. These nanosized materials could potentially exposure in many different fields, such as drug delivery systems, biomedical-medicine, catalysis, and imaging/sensing etc. Among them, nanomaterials are appealing materials for applications as catalysis, due to their tremendous surface areas coupled with superior optical/electronic properties compared to larger-sized bulk materials (Erdoğan, 2020). Significant contributors to water pollution are textile industries that affect the biological oxygen demand level of water and pose a severe threat to aquatic fauna and flora. There are plenty of dyes which are present in water as pollutants and are troublesome to treat (Singh et al., 2017). Activated carbon have proven to be a tremendous substance by adsorbing the dye through chemical or physical bond over the surface to degrade dye and result in dye removal. The quality of Adsorption over the surface is owed to various physico chemical activities, including Pore volume, surface area, pore diameter(DP) and pore size distribution. Slight alteration in these properties greatly enhance the adsorption power of the activated charcoal (Kalantary et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2020). Biomass such as Onion leaves (Hernández-Barreto et al., 2020) Sugar cane leaves (Li et al., 2016) Tobacco stalk (Bolbol et al., 2019), Cabbage (Zhang et al., 2019), Date palm (Alagha et al., 2020), Rice husk (He et al., 2019) Sewage sludge (Alagha, 2020), Tamarind seed (Andas and Satar, 2018), Teak saw dust (Armynah et al., 2014); Mosambi peels (Singh et al., 2019), Pea shells (Geçgel et al., 2013); Rubber wood sawdust (Kumar et al., 2005), Jute fiber (Senthilkumaar et al., 2005) and Mango seed kernel (Vasanth and Kumaran, 2005) have been utilized for the preparation of activated carbon. The chemical activation method which involves chemical activators such as H3PO4, KOH and ZnCl2 and then gets impregnated with resulting char. Execution of chemical activation can be achieved in a single step, whereas activation and carbonization are done simultaneously. A uni-step chemical activation method can scale down operational time, cost and energy consumption (Khanday et al., 2017). Porous carbonaceous absorbent, AC has better absorption ability than other absorbents (Marrakchi et al., 2016). Photocatalysis is time taking processes, due to the generation of electrons and holes pair via light that can easily recombine (Marrakchi et al., 2016). Various treatment techniques and strategies have been reported previously to eradicate the dyes from dye-bearing effluents. Among them, adsorption is a favourable method for eliminating coloured contaminants. This process is also significant for being a non-destructive process because it just involves the relocation of pollutants from one phase to another, rather than being eliminated. Therefore, the adsorbent regeneration is required prior to its reuse (Khanday et al., 2017).

In this present study, activated carbon was successfully synthesized by the chemical activation process with various activation agents. As the present investigation results, the comparison of Orthophosphoric acid and NaOH activation agent. Structural, morphological and optical properties of synthesized activated carbon were characterized using XRD, SEM and FT-IR spectroscopy. Methylene blue removal of activated carbon was experimentally visualized using a UV–Visible irradiation technique.

2

2 Materials and method

Egg shell was collected from the local market. Orthophosphoric acid and NaOH were purchased from Madras scientific chemicals, Tirunelveli, India. Methylene blue was obtained from Merck.

2.1

2.1 Preparation of activated carbon

Egg shells were washed and dried at sunlight for a day. Crush the powder and grounded it into a very fine powder. The powdered egg shell was well mixed with a 4:1 ratio of an activating agent (NaOH and H3PO4) and egg shell. Stirrer the solution for an hour. Place the solution 24 h for the activation process. Filter the solution and dried for 550 °C for 3 h. Thus activated carbon is obtained. Obtained carbon was stored for further characterization.

2.2

2.2 Characterization of activated carbon (AC)

The structural and phase of investigated AC was investigated using XRD. Crystallographic patterns were recorded using PAN analytical XPERT PRO Diffractometer. FT-IR spectra were recorded using a Perkin Elmer spectrometer with KBr pellets. FT-IR spectra were recorded from 4000 to 600 cm−1. Nano Metrix visualized the particle size of investigated activated carbon. The surface morphology of activated carbon was visualized using Joel JSM 6390 Scanning Electron microscope.

2.3

2.3 Photocatalytic activity

The dye degradation efficiency of activated carbon was recorded using UV–Visible irradiation. 50 ml/L of methylene blue is mixed with 0.50 g of active material. The mixture of activated carbon and methylene blue were well mixed using stirrer and centrifuged. Degradation of methylene blue removal was experimentally carried out using UV–Visible irradiations. The dye degradation efficiency of activated carbon was calculated using η = ( C 0 - C t ) C t × 100

  • η- removal efficiency

  • C0- Initial concentration (mg/L) of methylene blue

  • Ct- Concentration of methylene blue at equilibrium (mg/L) (Zhang et al., 2019).

3

3 Results and discussion

3.1

3.1 XRD analysis

Crystal structure, micro strain, density dislocation and average crystalline size were calculated from the XRD spectrum. XRD pattern of activated carbon was shown in Fig. 1. X-ray diffraction peaks observed at 29.5°, 36.1°, 39.5°, 43.4°, 47.7°, 48.6°, and 57.7° corresponds to Braggs reflection planes of (2 0 1), (1 0 5), (1 0 7), (2 0 7), (2 0 6), (3 0 4), and (3 1 4) respectively. Obtained diffraction peaks show the hexagonal crystal structure of carbon and well-matched with JCPDS: 721,616 (Amarasinghe and Wanniarachdhi, 2019). In addition to that peak at 23.1° corresponds to (0 1 2) reflection plane corresponds to the rhombohedral structure of CaCO3. From XRD pattern shows a mixed crystal phase with a hexagonal structure of carbon. Variations in average crystalline, change in peak intensity peak shift due to the influence of activating agent and egg shell components. For H3PO4 activated egg shell results in high crystalline peaks when compared to NaOH. The addition of NaOH activation agent results indicates the removal of silica and ash content. There is a slight variation in the XRD pattern of activated carbon due to the activation agent. Phosphoric acid increases the porous structure of carbon.

XRD of Egg shell based activated carbon (XRD: X-ray diffraction).
Fig. 1
XRD of Egg shell based activated carbon (XRD: X-ray diffraction).

3.2

3.2 Fourier transform infrared Spectroscopy.

Functional group and chemical components present in egg shell based activated carbon were recorded using FT-IR spectroscopy. FT-IR spectra of AC is depicted in Fig. 2. The hydroxyl group presents at 3369 and 3359 cm−1. The observed peak at 2916 and 2878 cm−1 corresponds to C—H interaction with the surface of the carbon. A climax at 1430 cm−1 attributed to the carbonate group vibration (Balasubramanian et al., 2019). The band observed at 1064 cm−1 corresponds to the vibration of the phosphate group. 948 corresponds to the vibration of calcium carbonate. The band observed at 878 and 800 cm−1 due to the vibration of carbonate. The peak observed at 699 cm−1 due to C—H vibration. A spike at 512 cm−1 represents the vibration of PO43− (Tangboriboon et al., 2012). Change in peak intensity is due to Protoporphyrin IX pigment present in the egg shell. When phosphoric acid interacted with phenolic and carbonyl groups of carbon results P-Carbon (C-O-P). Formation of C—O—P bond results development of microspores on the surface of carbon (Shalma et al., 2008). The presence of nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen quickly bond with other metals on the surface. This result in decreasing activation energy for methylene blue degradation and more surface area to the activated sites on the AC (Luo, 2009).

FT-IR spectra of Egg shell based activated carbon (Red) H3PO4 (b) NaOH. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 2
FT-IR spectra of Egg shell based activated carbon (Red) H3PO4 (b) NaOH. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

3.3

3.3 Scanning electron microscope

The structural morphology of AC was visualized by implementing SEM technique. SEM images of activated carbon were shown in Fig. 3(a,b). The morphological view of activated carbon from the egg shell reveals irregular shape. Investigated activated carbon result ununiformed structure of carbon. The acid acts as a dehydration agent that inhibits tar formation. The calcination process enhances the surface area. Thermal effect or temperature is one of the most influencing factors for activated carbons. This process on the surface area forms the active sites. The active sites are known to be the material absorption process (Pezoti et al., 2016), which results in micropores present in activated carbon. Activated carbon prepared by NaOH the activation agent results from the smooth surface of carbon with less amount of microspores (Islam et al., 2015).

FESEM images Egg shell based activated carbon (a’), NaOH (b), H3PO4.
Fig. 3
FESEM images Egg shell based activated carbon (a’), NaOH (b), H3PO4.

3.4

3.4 Particle size analyzer

The Average particle size value of investigated activated carbon shows 89 nm for NaOH activation and 88 nm for Orthophosphoric acid activation. DLS spectra of activated carbon were shown in Fig. 4. Investigated activated carbon results poly dispersive index of 0.765 and 0.57 respectively.

DLS spectra of Egg shell based activated carbon.
Fig. 4
DLS spectra of Egg shell based activated carbon.

3.5

3.5 Photocatalytic activity

Photodegradation of methylene blue results in the absorption efficiency of activated carbon. Photocatalytic activity of activated carbon was experimentally studied using UV–Visible irradiation technique. Activated carbon used as an active source to degrade dye molecules. Photodegradation of activated carbon was recorded at every 30 min’ interval of time. Fig. 5.a and b. shows, photodegradation of methylene blue (see Fig. 6).

shows Photocatalytic activity of Egg shell based activated carbon (a) With H3PO4 84% (b) with NaOH 74%
Fig. 5
shows Photocatalytic activity of Egg shell based activated carbon (a) With H3PO4 84% (b) with NaOH 74%
Schematic representation about photocatalysis and its impact on degradation of organic pollutant i.e. Methylene Blue.
Fig. 6
Schematic representation about photocatalysis and its impact on degradation of organic pollutant i.e. Methylene Blue.

The UV–Visible absorption band of MB monomer in water molecules corresponds to 665 nm region which shows n-π* transition of MB (Ilomuanya and Igwilo, 2017). Excitation of electrons from the CB to VB generates a hole behind. Which causes photo to generate electron and spots on the surfaces of the carbon OH group present in activated carbon interact with holes to form OHO free radical. Oxygen molecules interact with the carbon surface to form superoxide’s (O2….). Organic pollutant (MB) can neutralize to H2O and CO2 and mineral acids present in activated carbon are responsible for dye removal (Jayakumar et al., 2017). Decolourization of methylene blue is due to the destruction of Azo bonds (—N⚌N—). During the degradation process, dye molecules were converted to leuco Methylene blue, which results informs in change the colour formation. Carbon + hѵ → h+ + e− h+ + O-H → OH---- e−+ O2 → O2---- MB + ROS → CO2 + H2O

Activated carbon results show the maximum degradation efficiency of about 74% and 83% for NaOH activation and H3PO4 activated carbon. % R of methylene blue dye. % R at 0, 30, 60, 90, 120and 150 min were 29.90, 45.17, 49.59, 76.09, and 83.96, respectively for H3PO4 and 32, 43, 56, 66, 68, 74 %R for NaOH (Ahmad et al., 2020). The absorption spectra reveal the degradation of MB from aqueous medium increases as the reaction time increases (Bagheri et al., 2015). The surface of AC is enriched mainly carboxyl, carbonyl, lactone, phenolic hydroxyl groups, and many oxygen-containing functional groups together, which determine its adsorption performance. There are three main modes of action which increase the photodegradation of MB, the first is to give electrons-to be affected by electrons, the second is electrostatic action, and the third is coordination reaction (Muzarpar et al., 2020). The photocatalytic activity results tell the fact of increases in methylene blue removal from 0 to 30 min. The degradation rate slows after 30 to 120 min for both samples. MB decomposes to leuco methylene blue after 120 min. The photocatalytic activity of AC prepared using (H3PO4) was higher when compared to NaOH. By adding phosphoric acid as an activation agent which gives the carbon results to C-O-P formation due to the carbon phosphorous formation to the surface. The results reassure the microspores distribution on the surface of AC. Active microspores present in the activated carbon results give high degradation efficiency when compared to NaOH. Degradation efficiency increases with high porosity, spectacular adsorption capacity, and enhanced active sites for the reacting species during chemical reaction (Hameed, 2020; Ramli et al., 2014; Huang et al., 2011; Hoseinzadeh Hesas et al., 2013; Foo and Hameed, 2012; Deng et al., 2010).

4

4 Conclusion

In this work, activated carbon was successfully synthesized by the chemical activation method. The rich amount of carbon having high absorbent due to the surface area and porous nature of the material. XRD pattern reveals a mixed phase of activated carbon with a hexagonal crystal structure of carbon. FT-IR identified the functional group present in activated carbon. Particle size increases for NaOH activation. SEM images reveal the irregular form of activated carbon with active microspores. Photodegradation of activated carbon results maximum degradation efficiency of 83% at 120 min. Degradation efficiency rate increases from 0 to 30 min. From the photocatalytic activity of activated carbon results, the investigated activated carbon is highly applicable for wastewater treatment.

Acknowledgements

This work was funded by the Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSP-2020/243) King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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